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MAYAN CAPTIVES IN 1511
Who were the slaves in the article?
Spanish soldiers, Gonzalo Guerrero and Gerónimo de Aguilar
How many years were the two men living
with the Mayas on Cozumel Island before Cortez's landing?
8 years.
Spanish blood was both spilled and mixed early in the colonization of the
Americas. Two men, Gonzalo Guerrero
and Gerónimo de Aguilar escaped death in
1511 by being slaves to the Mayas.
By 1519 when Cortés landed at Cozumel Island, both men had achieved both
acceptance and prominence among
the Indians. Of the two men, it was only Aguilar
who responded to Cortés' inquiry. Aguilar stated that Guerrero did
not come
because "he has his nostrils, lips and ears pierced and his face painted
and his hands tattooed according to the custom of that country... Indeed, I
believe he failed to come on account of the vice he had committed with the woman
and his love for his children." According to Spanish official reports,
Guerrero died in action in 1536.
Apparently he chose to remain and fight with
his Indian family. "He is the one who lived among the Indians for 20 years
or more, and in addition is the one whom they say brought to ruin the Adelantado
Montejo ... he came with
a fleet of 50 canoes to destroy those of us who were
there. "
Source: National Geographic, Dec 1975, Vol 148. No. 6. p. 76
INDIAN SLAVES IN THE SOUTH
What were the Laws of Burgos?
Laws issued
in 1512 to define the Spaniards' treatment of the Indians.
What was the
responsibility of the soldiers and priests? To protect and educate the natives.
"The European explorers and settlers had the mistaken idea that the
Natives of America were uncivilized savages. They felt that the only way to
civilize them was to Christianize them. The Spanish, French, and English all
established missions as a way of accomplishing this goal.
The responsibility of both the Catholic Spanish priests and Spanish soldiers
who accompanied the priest in the establishing and maintaining of the missions
was to protect and educate the Indian. Although difficult to enforce,
King
Ferdinand issued the Laws of Burgos in 1512 to define and regulate the
Spaniards' treatment of the Indians
in Nueva España.
The Spanish in the 1600s had established a string of missions from the
Georgia coast to the panhandle of Florida. European slave traders destroyed many
of these Spanish missions and surrounding Indian villages in these areas. The
slave traders raided all the way to the Mississippi River. Captured Indians were
sold either in South Carolina or
in the West Indies. In 1708 nearly 1/3 of the
slaves in South Carolina were Indian."
Sources: Shirley Donaldson, Indian Research: Missions anti Missionaries,
American Records Today, Vol 17, No 2, April 1996 and Mark A. Burkholder and
Lyman L. Johnson, Colonial Latin America, Oxford University Press, (c) 1990
THE FIRST IMPRESSION BY EUROPEANS
When and who is describing the
magnificence of Mexico City? Bernal Diaz del Castillo
From how far away could
they hear the buzz of the market place? Two miles
The journals of Bernal Diaz Del Castillo describe the magnificence of Mexico
as seen through the eyes of Hernán Cortés and the first Spaniards to arrive.
"On the morning of November 7, 1519 we at last reached this Mexico. We came
to a broad causeway, which ran miles across the lake to the center where the
city of the great king
Moctezuma lay. All about us we saw cities and villages
built in the water, their great towers and buildings rising straight out of it.
On dry land were other great towns, and with the straight level causeway leading
toward Mexico it seemed like the enchantments they tell of in the legends. Some
of the soldiers... we were only four hundred... even asked were it not all a
dream. As we approached Mexico, splendidly dressed chieftains came out to meet
us and they lodged us in spacious stone palaces." "We saw in these
cities temples all gleaming white and wonderful to behold. The noise and hum
from the market place below us could be heard more than two miles distant. Those
of
our men who had been at Rome and at Constantinople said that for arrangement,
order and population, they had never seen the like." The territory was so
large that Hernán Cortés confessed to the King of Spain, "The whole of it
is so large that I am unable to find out exactly the extent of Moctezuma's
kingdom." Written in the picture-writing books of the Aztecs, Cortés was
able to identify 371 tribes and villages as being under tribute to the Aztecs.
Source: Victor W. Von Hagen, The Sun Kingdom of the Aztecs.
SPANISH TREASURE SHIPS, HAVANA AND FLORIDA
When was the harbor of Havana founded?
1519
What evidence is there of an integrated global economy 300 years ago?
Silver
pesos known as cobs have been found all over the world.
Founded in 1519, Havana was considered probably the finest harbor in the
Indies. With its narrow entrance it was easy to defend and entire fleets could
be anchored. For centuries it was one of the most important bases of
Spanish
power in the New World. Veracruz and Panama City were both important ports, but
limited by high temperatures and humidity, whereas Havana was moderate and
healthy.
From Havana, wind and currents set the routes along the Florida coast of
treasure fleets bound for Europe. Spanish control of Florida was essential to
protect against both French and English pirates. The importance of establishing
and fortifying St. Augustine in Florida was stated by the first Spanish governor
of Florida, "fix our frontier lines, here, gain the waterway of the
Bahamas, and work the mines of New Spain."
The royal share of the precious metals that came from the mines, was a
Quinto,
"fifth". By law, all subsurface minerals belonged to the crown, but in
practice, the government allowed private individuals to operate the mines in
return for a 20 percent royalty.
Evidence that an integrated global economy existed more than 300 years ago
can be found in silver pesos known
as cobs. Produced in the Spanish colonial
mints, these coins have been found all over the world.
Source: Timothy R. Walton, The Spanish Treasure Fleets (c) 1994.
MARTIN LOPEZ, FIRST TANK AND PREFAB SHIP BUILDER
How did the small
number of Spaniards escape from the estimated million of Aztec soldiers?
Inside
of a wood tank designed by Martin López.
How many and which tribe of Indians
helped carry the dismantled brigantines 60 miles to water?
2,000 Tlaxcala
Indians.
Martin López set sail with Hernando Cortés in 1519 as a ship's carpenter.
It was not the position that Martin sought. He wanted to be a
soldier-adventurer, but his skills, learned as the son of a Spanish carpenter,
were to help him play a key part in the conquest of Mexico. It was Martin who
oversaw the stripping and burning of the ships. Yardage, sails, metal, fittings,
and cannon were saved and hidden.
When the once welcomed Spaniards were set upon by the million or so Aztecs,
it was Martin who fashioned a kind
of wooden mobile fortress armed with guns and
small cannons. They succeeded in escaping from the 8,000 feet high Aztec
capital, but lost most of their weapons and three-fourths of their men.
Despite the overwhelming numbers of enemy, Cortés was determined to attack
Tenochtitlán. It was Martin who devised the strategy for fighting against the
1,000 war canoes which made up the Aztec navy.
From their base with the Tlaxcala nation, Martin directed the building of 13
brigantines from scratch. Using wood
and sap, which he found, he fashioned from
these, the needed parts of the ship. Short of nails, he improvised. The ship's
riggings and sails, which had been saved from their ocean voyage, were brought.
After testing their seaworthiness, the ships were then dismantled. On Christmas
day and with the help of 2,000 Tlaxcala Indians, the traveling navy began its
descent. Ship pieces were carried the 60-mile four-day trek over the 11,000 foot
mountain pass.
The city of Texcoco was captured easily. Martin López directed the
construction of dry docks inside the city and locks and dams, from the lake to
the city. On April 28th, after a solemn mass, a salute was fired and the
prefabricated vessels entered the water. The waters were calm, nature's
capricious whims had not been considered. The small vessels were almost
surrounded when a miraculous wind suddenly filled the ship's sails. Victory came
quickly that day. By summer, the victory was complete. Martin López's carpentry
skills and creative brilliance had succeeded in capturing Mexico.
Source: Great True Adventures, published by G. P. Putman.
PHYSICIAN OF NEW SPAIN
How many different medicinal plants did the
natives identify by name and uses in medicine? 1,200
Who and when was the first
hospital built on the American continent? Hernán Cortés,
1523, at his own expense.
In his History of Medicine in Mexico, Francisco Flores states that
"before the coming of the Spaniards, Indian medicine was very advanced.
Aztec physicians knew and could distinguish most illnesses of the human body.
They could extract tumors, do amputations, cure fractures, treat wounds and
ulcers." When Phillip II sent his
learned doctor Francisco Hernández to
study the medicinal plants of New Spain, the natives were able to identify
for
him more that 1200 different species with their respective Mexican names and
their uses in medicine. They used some plants like peyote and certain mushroom
and ololiuhqui as anesthetics. The medicinal knowledge acquired
from the Aztec
healers by both the Spanish physicians and the missionaries was put to good use
in the several hospitals established right after the conquest. Hospital de Jesus
in Mexico City was the first hospital on the American continent. It was founded
in 1523 by Hernán Cortés at his own expense, and, without interruption, it
continues to be in service. The one that followed was named Hospital Real de San
José de los Naturales. The hospital as founded by Fray Pedro de Gante in 1531
to serve the Indians exclusively.
Source: Francisco Flores, History of Medicine in Mexico
FIRST EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT IN NORTH AMERICA
Where and when was the
first European settlement in North America?
Spanish colonizers on the Coast of Georgia in 1526.
Who
went and how many survived?
Between 500-600 men, women, children, soldiers,
priests, and black slaves sailed, but only 150 survived the storms, sickness,
Indian attacks, and mutiny.
Lucas Vásquez de Ayallon established the first European settlement in North
America, San Miguel de Guadalupe,
in 1526. Although the exact location of the
town is undetermined, it was on the coast of Georgia. In July 1526, Ayallon
sailed from Santo Domingo, the colonial capital, what is now present-day
Dominican Republic. Six ships carried between 500-600 men, women, children,
soldiers, priests, and the first black slaves to reach American shores. The
larger flagship was grounded and went down, along with most of the supplies. The
smaller ships took
on the survivors. Autumn storms, sickness and Indian attacks
took the lives of 200. On Oct 18, 1526, Ayallon died.
A raging mutiny followed.
By December 1526 fewer than 150 had survived. They returned to Hispañola and
buried Ayallon at sea.
Source: Family Tree, Feb/March 1993
FIRST THANKSGIVING IN THE UNITED STATES
According to Texans, when was
the real first thanksgiving in the United States? In 1541
Where is the site of the
first real thanksgiving? Palo Duro State Park, Texas, near Amarillo.
When was the first thanksgiving in the United States? Some Texans disagree
with the traditional Pilgrims' date of 1621 and instead set the date for the
first thanksgiving in the United States as May 9, 1541 at the base of what is
now known as the Palo Duro State Park of Texas near Amarillo.
Francisco Vásquez de Coronado and his expedition traveled eastward along the
high plains of Texas, encountering the unfriendly Tiguex tribes of upper New
Mexico. The expedition lost a large number of horses, men and supplies
in their
hasty retreat from the non-friendly tribes. The heat and the lack of shade trees
made their journey quite unbearable and the loss of supplies and water was
taking its toll on the remainder of the expedition. The situation
was desperate.
Coronado's journal records that on May 8, 1541 they came upon a large hole in
the ground which appeared all of a sudden before them as if to swallow the
earth. From the edge of the canyon, the Spaniards killed some wild game,
probably a deer, and feasted on it. The following morning, May 9, 1541, Coronado
ordered one of his accompanying priests to say a mass of thanksgiving for having
been spared. This became the first Thanksgiving of record in the United States,
80 years prior to the Pilgrims.
Source: Francisco Vásquez de Coronado's Journal
MINING IN NUEVA ESPAÑA
Where and when did the first gold rush in
North America take place? Zacatecas, Mexico,1548
Who introduced flat-bottomed
bowls for panning gold in streams? Miners from Sonora, Mexico
The first gold rush in North America took place in
Zacatecas, Mexico in 1548,
three hundred years before gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill. The Spanish had
been mining gold and silver in Mexico and Peru for centuries. They
knew a great
deal about placer and quartz mining. The western coast of Mexico was heavily
mined. Before the
formal announcement of the discovery of gold in California in
1848 and the consequent "mad" California gold rush, miners from Sonora
were already panning the streams of California.
Anglo-Americans had little or no experience with mining. They relied on the
knowledge and expertise of the miners from Mexico. It was the Sonorans who
introduced the batea or flat-bottomed bowl for panning gold in streams. The
Anglos also relied heavily on their Latino predecessors for technical mining
terms and expressions, as well as
mining law. American history books often cite
the extraordinary capacity of Anglo-Americans for self-government in relation to
the California miners early adoption of mining laws. However, the California
miners merely adapted Hispanic-mining laws that had been developed over
centuries of experience in Mexico and South America.
At the height of the California gold rush many Sonoran miners went home to Mexico
not comfortable with the lawlessness. Some returned.
Source: Rancho Los Alamitos Historic Ranch & Gardens, Educator's Packet,
summer 1994 and numerous issues
of The California Historian published by the
Conference of California Historical Societies.
WILL OF TECUICHPO
Who was Tecuichpo?
The last princess and daughter of
Moctezuma II.
What was her name changed to and when?
Her name was changed to
Isabel when she married her last husband, Juan Cano de Saavedra.
Bits and pieces of historical documents are surfacing, revealing facts
helping to unscramble the colonial past and history of the Americas. The marital
unions in the Americas of indigenous with Europeans spanned all social levels.
One recent discovery is the July 16, 1550 will of
Tecuichpo, the last
princess and daughter of Moctezuma II. Tecuichpo was wife first to Cultidluac
and then Cuauhtémoc, Aztec leaders who followed Moctezuma II. The will was
discovered in the Archive General de la Naci6n and was exhibited for the first
time to the public at El Foro Nacional
de Censulta.
The document with the Royal Seal was found hidden between thousands of books.
The will contains a genealogical study of the Moctezuma line. Perhaps one of the
most interesting inclusions is that Tecuichpo proclaims an emancipation of her
slaves. Tecuichpo ordered that all her slaves be given their freedom at her
death.
Princess Tecuichpo married a third time, this time to a Spaniard. She
accepted the Catholic faith, was baptized
and renamed Isabel. She had a
daughter, Leonor, by her last husband, Don Juan Cane de Saavedra.
Source: Article by Adriana Malvido, Cultura 27 La Jornada, January 12, 1996.
Submitted by Gloria Márquez.
SAINT AUGUSTINE, FLORIDA
What is the oldest continuously inhabited
city in the United States and when was it established?
St. Augustine, Florida, 1565
How many years did the Spanish maintain
a colonial existence in Florida? 230 years
St. Augustine, Florida founded in 1565 by Pedro Menendez de Aviles is the
oldest continuously inhabited city in
the United States. In 1564, French
protestants established a foothold at Fort Caroline, north of St. Augustine.
Menendez captured the fort, and built San Mateo on the site. Menendez, serving
under King Philip of Spain, hoped
to govern La Florida, which covered the entire
southwest of the present-day United States. In 1586 privateer Frances Drake
burned St. Augustine (San Agustin) but the establishment survived the attack.
Spanish Florida survived Indian rising, epidemics, and English attacks. For
the next 75 years, Spanish missions, ranches, and pueblos populated La Florida.
In 1763 La Florida was granted to Britain. Twenty years later, after the
Revolutionary War with Britain, La Florida was returned to Spain for Spain's
part in supporting the Colonists. For another approximately 30 years, Spain once
again governed La Florida. Finally in 1821, after approximately 230
years under
Spanish rule, La Florida first founded in 1565 by Pedro Menendez de Aviles,
became part of the United States.
Source: Exploring Our Forgotten Century. National Geographic, March 1988: and
the Encyclopedia Britannica 1959
THE EARLIEST OF SCIENTISTS
What kind of mill did Capitán Andrés de
Aruana invent and when? A mill to grind ore for silver mining.
What did
Bartolomé de Medina invent and when?
A process using mercury, developed in
1636, still being used for securing silver from ore.
As early as the mid 1500s productive mines in Nueva España (New Spain) were
being tapped with great skill. Early mining ventures challenged the ingenuity
and engineering skills of adventurous Spanish explorers. Four hundred
years
later some of the methodology developed is still being used today. That the
early Spanish contributed greatly
to the field of mining is evident by several
documented facts. In May 14, 1636, Capitán Andrés de Aruana made a patent
submittal in Cerralvo, Nueva España, for a mill used to grind ore for silver
mining. The petition was made to
don Martin de Zavala. Unfortunately, Aruana did
not live to enjoy royalties from his invention, as he and his son Simon were
both killed by Indians the following year. In the same year, a Bartolomé de
Medina invented the process for securing silver from the ore using mercury
amalgamation. The same method is still being used today for
extracting silver
from ore.
Source: Rudy Zamora, Orange County chemical engineer
SPANISH SEA TRADE
Between 1565 and 1815, what was Europe's most profitable commercial
enterprise?
Manila galleon trade.
Why did the crew on the galleon, Nuestra
Señora de la Concepción, refuse to obey orders?
The captain was an
inexperienced young man appointed by his uncle.
One of the most profitable commercial enterprises in Europe's colonial
history was the Manila galleon trade.
Between 1565 and 1815, treasures of the
Orient were carried to the West via Mexico in exchange for New World silver and
the manufactured goods of Europe. More than 40 galleons were lost in the
treacherous seas over the centuries.
The galleon Nuestra Señora de la Concepción went down off
Saipan, September
20, 1638, en route from Manila to Acapulco. The Concepción was carrying a cargo
of Oriental silk, porcelain, ivory, and precious jewels. Mutiny arose over the
inexperience of her commander, Don Juan Francisco, the 22-23 year old nephew of
Manila's governor, Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera. Several officers refused
to obey orders, and each tried to gain control of the ship. The crew split,
mutiny, and severe weather all contributed to the shipwreck.
In 1718 chronicler, Casimiro Diaz wrote that Governor Corcuera was a man
"whose greed was great." Fifty-nine charges were brought against
Corcuera during the official inquiry in.
Source: contributed by Steve Demara from National Geographic
HONDURAS, THE VALLEY OF OLANCHO
How many different nations and languages were identified in the Valley of
Olancho? 200
What is the estimated value of the treasure located in the 20
sunken Spanish galleons? $3 billion
The country of Honduras is located in Central America, on the northern end of
the strip of land that joins South America with North America. Interestingly,
the area must have acted as a way station for merchants traveling in
both
directions. A Spanish missionary, Father Fernando Espino wrote in 1674 that in
the Valley of Olancho there were 200 different nations and languages.
In Father Espino's records, he also identified the site of 100 unexcavated
above ground structures. It is hoped that archaeological investigation of the
structures will provide answers to the great mix of people that inhabited the
area.
Both on land and in the sea, Honduras was part of the great colonial
expansion. In 1995, the Honduran government stated that it plans to recover
booty from at least 20 sunken Spanish galleons and may use it to help pay its
$3.8 billion debt to foreign creditors. The government said that it has located
the galleons in Honduran waters of the Caribbean. They hold treasures worth an
estimated $3 billion.
Source: Buried Secrets, Luminous Find, James E. Brady, George
Hasemann, and
John H. Fogarty, Americas, July/August 1995.
DANGEROUS SEA TRADE
What are the natural conditions on the Atlantic
coast which facilitated travel between Nueva España and Europe?
Northeast and
Southeast trade winds
How many Spanish ships out of the 10 that left Cuba in
1715 survived? One
The winds over the Atlantic Ocean create northeast and southeast trade winds,
well known to the earliest of sea travelers. Active sea trade existed between
Europe and Nueva España. On July 24, 1715 a rich armada of 10
Spanish ships
left Cuba, laden with gold, silver and precious jewels. The estimated value of
the treasure, more
than $14 million and all bound for Spain. As the fleet sailed
up the Florida coast, the weather changed and a heavy storm broke. Soon waves
crashed over the small ships and high winds tore loose the masts. One by one the
ships overturned and sank in the shallow water off Cape Kennedy. Only one ship
from the armada, the Grifón, survived. More than 1,000 sailors were lost.
Another 1,000 made it to shore and tried to salvage their sunken hoard. Using
divers, they were able to recover about $4 million worth of treasure. Even
today, the area is a tempting one for
modern treasure hunters.
Source: Ripleys Believe if or Not, Accidents and Disaster, published by
Ripleys book 1982
FOOD CONNECTIONS WITH TEXAS INDIANS
What was the unusual food
that Fray Espinosa said was one of their most delicious dishes in times of
famine? Crow
What were the foods regularly given to mission Indians?
Corn, meat,
tobacco, beans, and brown sugar.
Fray Isidro Feliz de Espinosa wrote, "During the years 1717 and 1718,
because of the severity of the drought, the harvest of corn and beans among the
Indians was very poor. Since we usually received some provisions from the
natives, it was inevitable that when they themselves suffered want, we too
should feel the pangs of hunger. Many a day dawned when we had absolutely
nothing to eat on hand."
"It occurred to one of the fathers that possibly the flesh of the crow
might after all furnish us a meal... With the use
of a gun, surely, we should be
able to feast on meat every day. True, the color, flavor and toughness of this
meat
was quite repugnant, but hunger made it so appetizing that for the greater
part of the year crow's meat was one of
our most delicious dishes."
In 1758 Governor Jacinto Barrios described the food issued to the Indians at
Mission San José. "Every week seven beefs are slaughtered to provide the
Indians with meat. Those who are sick receive chicken and the mutton of lambs.
Each Sunday the missionary doles out to each Indian one peck of corn, a slab of
meat and some tobacco. On Thursdays he distributes among them beans, brown sugar
bars and more corn to those who need it."
Source: Texas Women's Hall of Fame Cookbook, 1986
BANKING, TEXAS STYLE
How thick were some walls of homes in San
Antonio, Texas in the early 1700s? Three to four feet thick.
How did people mark
their money for storage in the Garza's safe? They wrote their names on their
bag.
In 1734 Gerónimo de la Garza built a Spanish-style mansion with
fortress-like stone walls between 3-4 feet thick.
The Garza were descendants
from the earliest colonizers of San Antonio, Texas. The Garzas were landowners,
cattlemen. Inside the Garza house was a room with a large stone closet.
Before paper money was common and checking accounts were known, San Antonio
merchants used to ask José Antonio de la Garza to store their gold and silver
in the large stone closet. This early "banking" was simplicity itself.
Customers, on their trading trips to Mexico or Louisiana, would mark their names
on the bags of money they stored, pay small honorarium for the privilege of
using this respected family's safe room and pick up their reserves when
they
returned.
Source: John O. Leal, abstracted from article by Paula Alien in The San
Antonio Express-News, 12-31-95
CROWN OF THE ANDES
For whom was the crown designed?
The Virgin Mary
Why
was the crown made? It was believed that a miracle had saved the town from a
horrible plague.
The Crown of the Andes, a religious crown not designed for human attire is
valued at between $3-$5 million.
The religious crown's story began late in the 16th century, when a
devastating plague swept South America's
coastal communities. The town of
Popayan, Colombia was unexpectedly spared from the plague. The highly
religious
townspeople attributed this wonderful miracle to the Virgin Mary. In her honor
the community created a
votive crown to adorn her statue in the Cathedral of
Popayan. The 18-22 karat 17th century gold colonial-style
crown was the work of
Spanish goldsmiths, highly skilled artists. Over time, the crown continued to be
embellished with emeralds, gifts to the church from its parishioners. Today, the
crown is encrusted with 450 emeralds. In 1936,
an American syndicate purchased
the crown. In 1995, the syndicate toured the United States looking for a buyer.
The estimated selling price is expected to be between $3 and $S million.
Source: Orange County Register, April 6, 1995.
HISPANIC INVENTOR
Who built the first experimental cotton gin?
José
Alzate
When did Eli Whitney build his cotton gin?
Twenty years later
Those inexpensive comfortable t-shirts that you enjoy might never have
happened without an idea which first came
to José Alzate of Mexico. The cotton
gin started an industrial revolution all over the world. The design idea to
build
a machine to perform a task done through laborious hand work first came to
José Alzate in the 1770's. José built
an experimental cotton gin model in 1773
in Mexico. The machine removed seeds from cotton after the cotton had been
picked from bushes. Before the cotton gin was invented, workers had to use their
fingers to remove the seeds.
It was tiring work that took a long time.
José Alzate's experimental cotton gin was built 20 years before
Eli Whitney's, who is usually credited with inventing the cotton gin. Eli Whitney's
cotton gin was built in the United States in 1793. Defined as a "more
practical" cotton gin, Eli Whitney soon became known as the inventor of the
cotton gin.
Source: McDonald U.S. Hispanic Heritage Art Contest/Teacher's Resource Guide.
SPAIN'S ROLE IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
Written by Dr. Mildred Murry
On a map of North and South
America, compare Spain's empire in 1773 to the present.
Spain claimed all of
Central and South America except Brazil. In North America everything south of
the 33 parallel and east of the Mississippi, up to the American colony of
Georgia.
Name the three ways Spain helped the American patriots win their
independence from England?
1) Spain loaned the Americans large sums of money;
2) Provided military assistance; and
3) Secret supplies given through a dummy
company.
By Royal Order, August 17, 1780, King Carlos III of Spain asked for a
onetime, voluntary donation from Spaniards
and Indians in his North American
colonies. This tale of Spanish silver from the first eight Alta California
Missions
is but a part of Spain's support of the American Revolution --support
given in secret that included loans of large
sums of money, a clandestine supply
operation and military aid. When the United States Congress requested a report
from Spain in 1794 on the sum due for payment, even the King could not evaluate
the amount since this aid had passed through so many hands before it reached its
final destination, the Second Continental Congress and General Washington's
army. Different cash transactions worth millions of dollars were made, yet
Congress
reportedly only repaid only $174 thousand and eleven dollars. For a country at war whose only
currency was paper, that purchasing power may well have meant the difference
between victory and defeat. Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchis, French King Louis XVI's top
spy, Beaumarchis and
Count Vergennes, French Minister of Foreign Affairs made plans to set up a dummy company to be financed by France and Spain, one that
could deliver military supplies and equipment to the Americans at war with
England. By May 1775, the French King authorized Beaumarchais to set up said
company, Roderique Hortalez et Cie, then he gave the first million livres to
start the operation.
Within a short time, King Carlos III of Spain matched this sum. Located in a
Dutch embassy building in Paris, the company's actual operations were located on
a Dutch-owned island in the Lesser Antilles, St. Eustatius. Here
Dutch ships
delivered war material brought in from Europe, then stored on the island until
other Dutch ships could deliver them to American Patriots, usually to Charleston
or Philadelphia. Reports show that this company paid to bring military men like
Lafayette and Baron Von Steuben to fight with the Americans as well as
furnishing military arms, ammunition, clothing and blankets for service men. Once Spain declared war on England May 8, 1779, there was aid
given to the Americans openly. Bernardo de Gálvez, Governor of Louisiana,
expanded his civilian leadership duties to include military leadership. In quick
succession in 1779, Gálvez captured by land and sea, but the British General
Campbell did not surrender until May 7, 1781. King Carlos III named Bernardo de
Gálvez Lt. General as
well as Governor of Louisiana and West Florida. Although
England's Cornwallis surrendered to Washington on October 19, 1781 at Yorktown,
the war between Spain and England continued for Gálvez in the Caribbean.
Gálvez's military campaigns helped determine the terms of peace in the Treaty
of Paris, 1783, for Spain did receive lands lost, especially East and West
Florida and some Caribbean islands. In October 1784, the United States Congress
gave a handsome citation to Count Bernardo de Gálvez for his outstanding aid
during the American Revolution.
BERNARDO DE GALVEZ, A SPANISH FRIEND IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
Written by Dr. Mildred Murry
Before 1779, in what ways did Bernardo de Gálvez help the American patriots?
1)
He loaned the Americans money
2) Sent military supplies and medicine and
3)
Allowed Americans to sell goods and ships taken from the British
What British military forts in the Mississippi River Valley and on the Gulf
of Mexico did Bernardo de Gálvez capture between 1779 to 1783?
Manchac, Baton
Rouge, Natchez, Mobile, and Pensacola
One of the American Patriots' best friends in the American Revolution was
Bernardo de Gálvez, a young Spanish nobleman. You do not hear or read much
about Gálvez in American history, but this Gálvez' accomplishments certainly
rank him with Lafayette, the French friend of the Americans. Spain had lost much
land to England at the
end of the French and Indian War in 1783. Thus, it was
only natural that Spain was most interested in the American colonists fighting
England for their independence. How could the American colonists possibly win against one of the
world's most powerful nations. Therefore, Spain secretly began giving help to the colonists.
The
young Bernardo de Gálvez was one of the key Spaniards in this plan. As acting
Governor of the province of
New Orleans in 1776, Bernardo sent money and
military supplies to the Americans with King Carlos ill of Spain's blessings.
The American agent was Oliver Pollock who had land in Louisiana and who spoke
Spanish fluently.
Guns, ammunition, blankets and medicine were sent up the
Mississippi and Ohio rivers to George Rogers Clark
at Ft. Pitt, and overland to
General George Washington's armed forces in Pennsylvania and Virginia. Gálvez
allowed Americans to sell goods and prize ships they took from the British in
New Orleans. Patrick Henry, Governor of Virginia, and Thomas Jefferson,
Commissioner from Virginia, corresponded with Gálvez, both requesting supplies
and thanking him for them.
May 8, 1779, Spain declared war on England, openly
supporting the American Patriots. Gálvez then became a military ally as well as
a civil administrator. In preparation for the defense of New Orleans,
Gálvez began gathering military supplies and recruiting men. Pollock was his
Aide-de-Camp. Gálvez headed for British forts and settlements on the
Mississippi River. In an 11-day march with 1427 men, Gálvez reached Ft. Brat at
Manchac, north of New Orleans. On September 6, 1779, he captured it. By
September 21, Gálvez captured Baton Rouge, and, on
October 5, Natchez
surrendered to Gálvez.
It took longer for Gálvez to prepare to capture Mobile
in West Florida and Pensacola in East Florida. He needed
more supplies, troops
and even ships, many of them to be sent from other Spanish forts and seaports. However,
once
they arrived, Gálvez set sail and reached Mobile Bay on February 10, 1780, five
months after the Mississippi River Campaign. On March 10, 1780, he took
possession of Ft. Charlotte at Mobile. A year later, April 23, 1781, Gálvez had
surrounded Pensacola, British posts at Manchac, Baton Rouge and Natchez in the
Mississippi River Valley. With additional military supplies, troops and ships,
Gálvez took possession of Mobile on the gulf of Mexico March 14, 1781. Other
British islands in the Caribbean fell to Spain after the British General
Cornwallis surrendered
to General Washington at Yorktown October 1781, but
before the peace was signed in 1783. Thus, Spain proved to be a crucial ally in
determining America's victory over England thus winning America's independence by
sending the patriots' money, supplies and military aid.
HISPANICS: MAKING A DIFFERENCE IN HAWAII SINCE 1794
Who were among the first non-Hawaiian residents of
Hawaii? Spaniards
Where does the Hawaiian word for cowboys come from?
The
kerchiefs worn by the Mexican cowboys who were imported from California to teach the
Hawaiians the art of cattle ranching.
Contrary to popular and most assuredly incorrect belief, Hispanics are not
recent arrivals to the islands. In fact, Hispanics were among the first
non-Hawaiian residents of Hawaii.
Don Francisco De Paula Marin, a former Spanish seaman, became a resident of
Honolulu in 1794. He served King Kamehameha I as physician, interpreter (he
learned the Hawaiian language), business manager, and horticulturist (according
to "The Rise and Fall of the Hawaiian Kingdom," he planted the first
pineapple in Hawaii on January 2nd, 1813.
The Hawaiian word for cowboy is paniolo. In 1830 two hundred Mexican Cowboys
were imported from California to teach the Hawaiians the art of cattle ranching.
The vaqueros wore brightly-colored kerchiefs they called pañuelos
("pan-you-el-os"). It sounded like "pan-ni-o-los" to the
early Hawaiians (this is not unusual when you consider the
first school for
commoners in the kingdom was started circa 1823; and there was no written
Hawaiian language until 6).
One hundred and sixty-five years later, the legacy left by those early
vaqueros has become an integral part of Hawaiian culture.
Source: Extracted from Hawaiian Hispanic News downloaded by Charlie Fouquet
from WWWeb
THE HISTORIC BELL OF LOS ANGELES
What was the act that brought
criminal charges against Captain Fitch? The elopement with Josefa Carrillo.
What
was his fine? To purchase the church bell.
Throughout the southwest, many Protestant Anglo men converted to the Catholic
faith as a religious requirement to marry a Spanish speaking Catholic lady.
Language, religion, and many customs differed between resident Spanish speaking
and the newly arrived others, who spoke English, Irish, German, and many other
languages. In addition to language differences, were differences in customs and
traditions which resulted in problems. A gentleman who did
not follow the
Spanish customs of the time donated the first bell in Los Angeles' Old Plaza
Church, under court order.
In the 1820s, Capt. Henry Pitch had criminal charges made against him by the
family of Josefa Carrillo. He was
being charged with abduction because without
asking for her hand in marriage from her parents as customs required, he eloped
with Josefa.
To satisfy this breach of custom, the condition for having abduction charges
against Captain Pitch dropped was for him to purchase and donate to the church,
a church bell. Perhaps a reminder to the community that each time the bell was
rung, tradition was to be respected.
Source: Beverly Hendrickson Waid
PABLO TAC
How old was Pabio Tac when he went to Rome?
Twelve years
What did he write? A grammar of the Luiseño language.
We frequently think of the courageous deeds of the indigenous people to
protect their homeland and that of
exploring colonizers risking life in service
to God and country. There are many kinds of bravery required in a life
of
service to God and country.
Pablo Tac, a California Indian was filled with both courage and a great
desire to serve his new Christian God and
his own people. Pablo received an
education at Mission San Luis Rey. The records refer to him as a Luiseño. The
practice of naming the local tribe by the mission's name was common.
Pablo Tac's abilities and dedication must have been observed by the Mission
priests. As a young child of only 12, Pablo was sent to Pome to become a priest
so that he could return to San Luis Rey to serve his people. While in school in
Pome, Pablo wrote a description of San Luis Rey and Quechia, and included
drawings of dancing men to explain the Luiseño culture. He explained that
Luiseño men danced at feasts and in memory of dead grandparents, and now that
they were Christians, they also danced for ceremony.
Before Pablo died of smallpox in 1841, he wrote a grammar of the Luiseño
language, and was developing a Luiseño dictionary. Pablo Tac's father was Pedro
Alcantara Tac, a native of the town of Quechinga, and his mother was Ladislaya
Molmolix of Pumusi.
The Tac manuscript is preserved in the University of Bologna library, where
it was first noted in the literature in 1858, as an item in the collection of
American Indian linguistic materials. Pablo Tac's book was first published in
Spanish
in 1930, and was translated into English in 1952.
Source: July 1952, The Americas, Submitted by Elizabeth Yamaguchi
SISTER MARY DOMINICA ARGUELLO
Who was Concepción Arguello engaged to?
A Russian, Nickolai Petrovich Rezanov
Why was Nickolai in California?
To obtain
needed food supplies for the Russians in Alaska.
The first California-born Nun to receive the Dominican Habit was Concepción
Arguello. With special permission
from Archbishop Joseph Alemany O. P.,
Concepción was allowed to become a novice at the advanced age of60.
She took
her vows in 1851. Novels, poems, myths and tales have been written in English,
Spanish, and Russian about the tragic romance between Maria de la Concepci6n
Marcela Arguello and Nickolai Petrovich Rezanov. In
1806, in response to a
directive from Czar Alexander I of Russia, Rezanov attempted to obtain needed
food supplies for the Russian colonists in Alaska from the Spanish colonists in
California. In the absence of Concepción's father, Commandant of the Presidio
of San Francisco, JosC Dario Arguello, Rezanov charmed both the padres and
ladies. Arguello was shocked when Rezanov, 42 years old asked for the 15 year
old Concepción 's hand. Unfortunately,
after obtaining and delivering the
needed supplies to Alaska, Rezanov died in a horse accident. Concepción who
vowed at his departure that she would never marry anyone but him, never did.
Concepción moved with her family,
first to Santa Barbara where her father was
given command of the Presidio, then to Loreto, Baja California, when José
Arguello was appointed governor of Baja. Concepción returned to Monterey from
Loreto in 1830. She spent
her life in pious works and was called "La Beata,"
the blessed one.
Source: Eve Iverson, Nickolai Rezanov and Concepción
Arguello, California
Historian, Vol 42, #4, Summer 1996.
SANTA ANNA, CHEWING GUM INNOVATOR
What did Santa Anna do during his
forced retirement on Staten Island?
Chewed something that Central American
Indians had been using since Aztec time.
What did Thomas Adams find when Santa
Anna left Staten Island?
A chunk of chicle, latex sap of the sapodilla tree.
Antonio López de Santa Anna might have fulfilled his ambitions of money and
power if he had recognized what
he held in his mouth. Instead of "Remember
the Alamo" he might have been known in the United States as the chewing gum
king. Santa Anna was exiled to Staten Island in the 1860s. In order to ease the
tensions of his forced
retirement, Santa Anna chewed frequently on pieces of
chide, the latex sap of the sapodilla tree, which Central American Indians had
been masticating since Aztec times. Thomas Adams, a neighbor discovered a large
chunk
of the chicle when Santa Anna left New York. Adams tried unsuccessfully to
turn the chicle into rubber. Eventually Adams turned the product into a candy
item, gum. Eventually William Wrigley, Jr. took the lead as the chewing gum king.
Source: Curious Customs The story behind 296 Popular American Rituals by Tad
Tuleja, Published 1987 Submitted by Laura Smith
THE BASQUE
What is strange about the Basque language?
It does not
have any connection with any other languages.
What important skill did the
Basque bring with them to California? Sheep herding.
The Basque who inhabit the Spanish and French Pyrenees are considered the
most ancient surviving ethnic group
in Western Europe. Their language, Euskara
is unrelated to any other European language, however most Basques speak either
or both, Spanish and French. The Basque are among the earliest of world
travelers.
Many Basque migrated to California first in response to the promises of the
gold rush. However for most, the gold rush was a fever which passed with little
gain. However, the Basque bringing with them centuries of farming and sheep
raising skills, achieved in the golden hills what they could not find in the
river streams. Two well known
Orange County Basque leaders were Domingo
Bastanchury and Domingo Oyharzabal.
DOMINGO BASTANCHURY was born in Basses-Pyrenees, France 1839. At 21 Domingo
left home, sailed around Cape Horn to California and arrived in 1860. He worked
as a sheepherder for wages and after several years acquired his own flock.
Eventually Domingo became the largest sheep owner in Los Angeles County, having
from 15,000 to 20,000 head. As Orange county developed into an agricultural
center, land was purchased and available ranges for sheep herders diminished.
DOMINGO OYHARZABAL was born in Basses-Pyrenees. He came to the United States
in 1863, to Orange County in 1878. With much vision, he invested heavily in real
estate purchasing small ranches until he owned over 4,000 acres in the Orange
County area. In addition to large herds of cattle, sheep and livestock, he
planted over 130 acres of walnuts. In addition, to a congenial partnership with
his brother "Steve" in ranching, they also got into construction and
built both a grocery store and hotel in the city of San Juan Capistrano.
Source: Samuel Armour, History of Orange County, California with Biographical
Sketches of The Leading Men
and Women of the County Who have been identified
with it Growth and Development from the Early Days to the present. Historic
Record Company of Los Angeles was the publisher, 1911
ELFEGO BACA, NEW MEXICO GUNFIGHTER LEGEND
For how many hours did Baca
hold off 80 men? Thirty three hours
What were some of the official positions
that Baca eventually held?
Mayor, county clerk, school superintendent, district attorney
Anyone with a Baca surname in New Mexico should research the fascinating
Elfego Baca, son of Francisco Baca. Elfego was born in 1865 in Socorro, New
Mexico Territory, but spent his boyhood in Topeka, Kansas. On October 1884,
nineteen-year-old Elfego pinned on a mail-order badge and made a citizens'
arrest of a drunken cowboy that was making the Mexican populace dance by firing
at their feet.
Elfego was confronted by a small group of men and quickly dispersed them. The
next morning a group of 80
cowboys crowded Baca just as he left the prisoner to
the local justice of the peace. For Thirty-three hours Baca
held the 80 men off.
It was claimed that more than 4,000 bullets were fired into the little shed that
Baca fled into
for cover. The door had 367 holes in it, and a broom handle had
been hit 8 times.
Baca agreed to let the deputy sheriff and Francisquito Naranjo take him under
custody to Socorro, but only if Baca were allowed to keep his guns. The cowboys
rode in the lead, followed by a buckboard in the rear of which Baca
was seated
with his guns trained on his captors. Baca was tried twice for murder, but won
acquittal on both occasions.
Baca was admitted to the New Mexico Bar in 1894 and ultimately served as
mayor, county clerk, school superintendent, and district attorney. He was
elected sheriff of Socorro County in November 1918. He died
August 27, 1945.
Sources: Encyclopedia of Western Gunfighters by Bill O'Neal, University of
Oklahoma Press (c) 1979 and New Mexico Legend by Chuck Parsons, True West, Oct
1993, pg 12.
DAVID BELASCO AND THE AMERICAN THEATER
What was David Belasco's
heritage? Spanish-Portuguese and Jewish
Where did David's family go when David
was 5 years old? To the gold strike in British Columbia.
David Belasco was a Spanish-Portuguese Jew and the leading American
theatrical personality in the late 1800s
and early 1900s. David was born very
soon after the family arrived in San Francisco, California, July 25, 1853. His
father ran a small grocery store and had difficulty supporting his growing
family. In 1858, the family rushed to the
gold strike in British Columbia,
living there for 7 years.
The family returned to San Francisco in 1865, when David was 12. David
prepared for his Bar Mitzvah and quickly made a name for himself as a star
elocutionist and actor at Lincoln Grammar School. While still in school, David,
the oldest of 7 boys and 2 girls, started writing plays and did odd jobs in San
Francisco theaters, including taking small roles.
His varied talents expressed in all phases of theater began to attract local
attention. Soon his plays began
to attract national attention. In 1882, David
went to New York and quickly established himself as a prime mover
in the
theater. David Belasco, first generation American, of Spanish-Portuguese Jewish
roots.
Source: Harriet and Fred Rochlin, Pioneer Jews, Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston
1984
MONTEREY JACK CHEESE
Who originated the cheese now called Monterey Jack?
Juana Cota de Boronda.
Why is it called Monterey Jack?
Because David Jack mass
produced the cheese and gave it his name.
That delicious white cheese, Monterey Jack, popular in Mexican food would
probably have been called Cota
Cheese if not for the unprincipled business
dealings of a certain David Jack living in Monterey, California.
After Señora Juana Cota de Boronda's husband was crippled, she needed to
find a way to support her 15 children. Señora Cota was well know for her
cooking skills, and especially for her famous cheese attributed in part to the
fields in which her animal grazed. In the 1880s she was producing a high
moisture cheese known as "queso de Pais." She was making small
quantities of the cheese for local markets on her Rancho de Los Laureles in
Carmel Valley.
In the 1890s David Jack, a wealthy community leader observed the success of
the white cheese and also Señora Cota's methods for producing the delicious
cheese. He saw an opportunity. In spite of the Cota's family situation, David
Jack leased neighboring land and contracted with farmers to produce the cheese
on a large scale for distribution statewide. He called the cheese Jack's
Monterey cheese, which eventually evolved into Monterey Jack Cheese.
Source: California Historian, Dec 1992
FRAUDULENT LAND CLAIMS
Who was the man who fraudulently claimed most of the state of Arizona?
James
Addison Reavis
How did he attempt to achieve this goal? He falsified
genealogical records showing his connection with a nonexistent Miguel Nemecio
Silva de Peralta y de la Cordoba who supposedly had lands rights.
The development of the United States is filled with stories of land being
lost at the end of a gun or won with a
wedding band. Lands were lost to corrupt
politics, crooked business practices, cheating gamblers, and creative
fraud.
A James Addison Reavis through a fabricated genealogical lineage contrived
one of the most ingenious frauds.
Reavis fabricated and documented a false birth
(1708) and his genealogical connection with a non-existent Don Miguel Nemecio
Silva de Peralta y de la Cordoba. By a series of actions, which included
actually changing parish records, Reavis made claim to, and almost achieved
ownership to most of the state of Arizona.
Fortunately, his claim within the courts revealed its fraudulent base. In
1895 the U. S. attorney general described
the case as "...probably the
greatest fraud ever attempted against a government in its own courts." The
second trial
in 1896 was further elaborated as "...in the magnitude of the
claim made, and the fertility of criminal resource displayed in its support,
this case has rarely, if ever, been equaled in judicial annals."
Source: Dr. Bruce Harley, By the Gentle Waters: Agua Mansa and San Salvador
Parish, 1842-1893, Volume III, pages 107-121
CUBAN HOSPITALS AND DOCTORS
What medical concept was innovative? That
the mentally ill should be separated from criminals.
Who did the hospitals
admit?
Everyone, including the local poor and multi-ethnics whose ships entered
the port of Havana.
Havana constructed many fine hospitals in the early 19th century, both to
treat the ill and for medical research. Most hospitals only accommodated 40
patients at a time, two patients per room. A reporter of the time Mote,
"Nothing is missing in these elegant sanatoriums..."
Not only did the hospitals treat the local poor for free, but also opened its
doors to the multiethnic ill whose ships entered the port of Havana.
Hospitals in Havana were among the earliest hospitals in the world to
recognize and separate the mentally ill from criminals. In Mazorra, Cuba the
Hospital para dementes was founded in 1857.
In July 1902, The Congreso Sanitario Internacional Panamericano met in
Havana. A writer of the times wrote that Havana had attracted the attention of
numerous visiting medical professionals. Several stated that the organization
and intent of the hospitals in Havana were original, not duplicated in North or
South America.
Source: "Las Casas de Salud en La Habana de Principios del
Siglo,"
by José A. Soto, M. D., Medicina y Cultura Vol. IV, No. 10, Marzo 1996.
A PANCHO VILLA STORY
Do you think that the re-shoeing of the horses is a folktale?
Why?
How much
money did Dennis Chávez say the U. S. government spent to try and catch Villa?
$130 million
Many families with roots in the southwest, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas have
stories of encounters with the legendary Pancho Villa. To some, Pancho Villa was
a hero, to others an outlaw bandit. Photographers mounted life-size figures of
Pancho Villa. Villagers purchased photos standing next to Pancho Villa's figure,
as a tribute to Pancho Villa. It was the mixed attitudes of the people, which
made the capture of the elusive Pancho Villa particularly difficult. One
folktale claims that Pancho Villa ordered his soldiers to reshoe their horses,
with the horseshoes placed backwards, sending the United States Army in the
opposite direction.
In 1912, shortly after New Mexico was admitted to the Union, John B. McManus
was appointed warden of the New Mexico State Penitentiary. McManus related a
story to Dernis Chávez, who later became United States Senator from New Mexico.
The story concerned the possible location of Pancho Villa's head and how a
Mariano Contreras desiring the $1,000.00 award supposedly available for the
recovery of the head had approached McManus. Dennis Chávez laughed and replied
that a reward of one thousand dollars for Villa's head was a rather small
amount, considering the U. S. government spent one hundred and thirty million
dollars trying to catch Villa.
Sources: Doug Westfall, taken from the Legends of the West, Dr. Gary
Shumway,
California State University, Fullerton
FILIPINO WORLD WAR II VETS
When did the United States buy the
Philippines? 1898
When did the United States grant citizenship to men who had
fought in World War II? 1990
The Spaniards colonized the Philippine Islands, named for King Philip II of
Spain, in the 1500s. Spain sold the to the United States for $20 million in
1898.
In July 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt created the United States Armed
Forces of the Far East inducting 12,000 draftees of the Philippine Commonwealth
into U. S. Military service. From 1898 to 1946, the Philippines was a part of
the United States, and these men were considered United States soldiers. An
estimated 1 million Filipinos died during the war. The Philippines was granted
independence July 4, 1946 by the United States. In February 1946 the Rescission
Act was passed by Congress depriving more than 120,000 Filipino soldiers and
countless guerrillas who fought alongside Allied troops of any recognition,
right or privileges as veterans, even though during World War II, the
Philippines were part of the United States.
In 1990 the U. S. granted citizenship to those who could prove military
service, paving the way for a massive influx of elderly Filipinos into the
United States. Many settled in southern California. Census figures for 1990
identify more than 26,00 Filipinos veterans in Orange County. Today, there are
likely many more veterans, carrying names like Gomez and Rivera because of their
ancestral roots.
Source: O. C. Register
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