SAVING PRIVATE JOSE: MIDWESTERN MEXICAN AMERICAN MEN DURING WORLD WAR II
by 
Richard Santillan, Ph.D. 
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona

Page19 RICHARD SANTILLAN Fall 2001

Over the years, several movies have been produced highlighting the contributions of American servicemen during World War II. With rare exceptions, most of these films ignore the major contributions of Mexican Americans2. Mexican Americans have clearly distinguished themselves during combat, erasing any lingering doubts about their loyalty to the United States. It is estimated that nearly 500,000 Mexican Americans served during World War II. Mexican American women also played a major role both on the home front and in the military.3

Wartime has been a mixture of both immeasurable pain and unforeseen opportunities for the Mexican American community. Many Mexican American men have either been killed or seriously wounded on foreign battlefields, and families have suffered physical separation from their loved ones too many times.

Yet, wartime has provided Mexican Americans the opportunity to become U.S. citizens, purchase new homes, attend college, acquire new voting rights, and learn leadership skills. The G.I. Bill, for example, allowed Mexican Americans to attend college and learn skilled jobs, as well as break the cycle of housing discrimination by purchasing federally-owned homes outside their segregated community. All of these opportunities triggered a new wave of political activism beginning in 1946.

Mexican Americans from throughout the United States served in World War II, enlisted in all branches of the military and fought with relentless tenacity in major campaigns around the globe.4 For the Midwest Mexican American community, wartime has especially been a mingled time of intense family love, ranging from military moments of glory, to deepest loss of love ones. Over the years, the Midwest Mexican American community has paid tribute to the women and men who served their nation both in peacetime and wartime. This article is an attempt to portray, in part at least, the indomitable fighting spirit of the Mexican American soldier and the numerous ways in which the Mexican American community has remembered its heroes.

Introduction

World War II provided an opportunity for a second generation of Midwest Mexican men to fight in the defense of their country. These young Mexican American servicemen distinguished themselves by their grace and courage in World War II and brought increased respect and pride to their communities. These men were not martyrs but ordinary mortal beings responding to a noble cause. For patriotic Mexican American men living in isolated rural communities during World War II, there were no local recruiting stations, so they collected money from their family and friends for the bus or train fare to get to the nearest big city to enlist. They enlisted in Detroit, Chicago, Des Moines, St. Louis, Toledo, Gary, Milwaukee, Bethlehem, Kansas City, Omaha, St. Paul, and East Chicago. Thousands of young men of Mexican descent and a handful of women enlisted or were drafted into all the branches of the military.

Most Midwest Mexican communities saw nearly all of their young men serving overseas during the war years. Many families also had nearly all their older daughters working in defense plants. Almost all the homes in the Mexican American communities had stars posted on their windows, indicating the number of men and women from that particular household who were serving in the armed forces. Military enlistment became socially contagious as young Mexican

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American men saw their close friends joining the Army, Navy, and Marines; so they too wanted to be part of the national military effort. A few of them even lied about their age because they wanted a chance to defend the United States. As an added inducement, the United States government offered U.S. citizenship to all legal residents serving in the military, and some Mexican-born men wanted to take advantage of this policy.

Language diversity was obvious among Mexican American service personnel in the camps. There were Mexican Americans who were monolingual in English, monolingual in Spanish, and bilingual. There were regional dialects, including Calo, southwestern Mexican American slang. Moreover, Mexican Americans shared similar stories about discrimination.

They were surprised that discrimination was so widespread against them no matter where they lived, and they vowed with all their heart that they would return and positively change their community for themselves and for the next generation. This contact between Mexican Americans from throughout the nation was very significant in the history of the Midwest community because it instilled the notion that the Mexican people were a national ethnic group, transcending their local neighborhoods. For the majority of Midwest Mexican Americans, their world became bigger as they did their basic training in such states as Texas, California, New Jersey, Washington, Maine, Florida, Utah, Mississippi, Alabama, and North Carolina. Longtime friendships between Mexican Americans from various geographical regions would continue after the war and have immense political implications on the post-World War II civil rights movement.

Most Mexican American servicemen, having finished basic training, returned home briefly to visit their families and friends before being shipped overseas for combat duty. After an emotional farewell in the morning to family members and friends, young, war-bound servicemen and servicewomen would be driven typically to the bus or train depot, where another tearful scene would take place between family members and close friends. Some Mexican American couples also decided to marry before the men left. It was simply a case of love triumphing over the harsh reality that some of these brides could quickly find themselves widowed.5 After a final good-bye, the young men would leave by bus or train to the west or east coasts, where a ship or airplane would be waiting to take them to battle. These men saw themselves as honor bound to prove their courage and loyalty on the fiercest battlegrounds.

On the ships, they attended church services, wrote letters to their loved ones, and played Mexican music with their guitars. Most of them had never been on a ship before, let alone in a foreign country. Invariably, some Mexican Americans became very homesick or seasick or both. It took weeks for them to arrive at their final destinations.

The Battlefield

Between 1941 and 1945, Midwest Mexican American servicemen upheld the rich tradition of defending the nation as they spanned the globe and fought in North Africa, the Pacific, the Mediterranean, the Philippines, Sicily and Italy, Normandy, Burma, the Ardennes, and Central Europe—the toughest of the tough battles. They served as Seabees, combat engineers, anti-aircraft gunners, artillery men, Coast Guard sailors, infantry, military policemen, medics, cooks, bakers, signal corpsmen, pilots, navigators, and special services personnel. Paul Monzon from North Platte, Nebraska, for instance, was a Navy guard in Brazil protecting the U.S. Embassy.

Louis Sanchez of Dodge City, Kansas joined the Army Corps of Engineers. In June of 1943, Louis was 20 years old when the war called him. He learned to build bridges, and found out very quickly that the Marines don’t land first—the engineers do. He noted that due to their bilingual abilities and their Hispanic surnames, several of the Mexican American soldiers were treated very well by the local European villagers.6 His wife’s two brothers were killed in the war.

Page 21  SAVING PRIVATE JOSE: MIDWESTERN MEXICAN AMERICAN 

Augustine Rocha from Kansas City, Missouri stated that many Mexican American men saw action very quickly. During World War II, he saw action on D-Day and at the Battle of the Bulge: I left Camp Shanks, New York as an infantry replacement on Friday, May 13, 1944 and landed in Liverpool, England in time for the invasion of Normandy on June 6, 1944. Crossing the short distance between England and France took all night and part of the next day. We were on an English ship and faced murderous fire from the German Air Force.7

Many Midwest Mexican Americans fought at the D-Day invasion. Robert Vasquez from Kansas City fought with the Second Infantry Division from Normandy to central Europe and earned five battle stars.8 Paul Ybarra of Wellington, Kansas landed on Omaha Beach on DDay as part of a reinforcement unit for the first waves that had taken heavy losses. He said that as they landed, they saw countless bodies either floating in the water or covering the entire beach. Mr. Ybarra said there was no time to stop because of the intense firepower by the Germans. A few days later, they met deadly fire from the enemy and, in the confusion, American planes accidentally killed most of the men in his unit.

Because his unit was almost depleted, Mr. Ybarra served as the head scout, a position designed to draw fire from the enemy in order to pinpoint their location. Mr. Ybarra was seriously wounded and spent nearly a month in the hospital. For his actions, Mr. Ybarra won the Purple Heart with cluster, the Bronze Star with cluster, and the Gallantry in Battle Medal.

After his recovery, he went back to the front lines and was wounded again while coming to the aid of a wounded comrade. He was sent back to the hospital for 30 more days. Mr. Ybarra also had two brothers who served in World War II, and he noted that his parents were extremely proud to have three silver stars posted on their window. In 1994, France presented Mr. Ybarra and other American veterans a medal commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Normandy invasion.9

Mexican American soldiers also fought in the Pacific campaign. Leonard Mejia was born in Kansas City, Kansas in 1920. He was a switchboard operator in the South Pacific and served with the First Marine Division that successfully assaulted Japanese strongholds in Tulagi, Gavutu, Tanamlogo, Florida, Guadacanal, and the British Solomon Islands. In one critical battle, he volunteered to aid another man in laying out two telephone lines across nearly 300 yards of open terrain where enemy 75mm and 105mm shells were landing. Mr. Mejia later helped in the evacuation of several wounded men. Because of his brave deeds, he won several medals, including the Bronze Star.

Cirilio Artega, who was born in Wichita, Kansas in 1924, was assigned as a scout in Okinawa. His main duty was also to draw fire from Japanese snipers in order to pinpoint their locations. He said that he survived only because the Japanese snipers, instead of killing him, waited until the main units were in place before firing. Mr. Artega had two brothers who served in the Pacific— Louis who fought in New Guinea and Luzon and Robert who was wounded on his birthday on September 10, 1942.10 

Several Mexican American servicemen also served in the Navy. Russ Cuellar’s brother Jay, for example, served in the Navy along with 10 other Mexican American boys from Newton, Kansas.11

Many Mexican Americans served in the air war during World War II. Joseph L. Belman, who was born in Lockport, Illinois in 1924, was drafted into the Army in 1943 and was trained as a gunner. He completed 35 combat missions on a B-17 Flying Fortress. Mr. Belman’s job was to make sure the bombs were secured and dropped in good order. He added that there were many close calls as several of his planes were seriously damaged during the bombings over Germany. Mr. Belman noted that his bombing missions included most of  [Page 22] Germany. As a result of his military record, he received 5 oak leaf clusters to the Air Medal and three battle stars to the European Ribbon. His crew won two Distinguished Unit Citations. Mr. Belman returned to the United States in April of 1945 and was discharged in October of the same year.12

There is also the story of Charles “Chuck” Garcia from Omaha, Nebraska. Mr. Garcia was born in Jackson City, Nebraska in 1921. After graduating from high school in 1940, he married and moved to East Chicago, Indiana, looking for work at Inland Steel Company. In 1943, he reported to the military and trained as an aircraft engine mechanic. He was assigned to the 839th Bomb Squadron, 487th Bomb Group, 3rd Bomb Division, 8th Air Force, and sent to England. During his overseas tour, he flew 35 missions and was award several medals, including the Air Medal with three oak leaf clusters, four Bronze Battle Stars, and the Distinguished Flying Cross. Mr. Garcia returned to the U.S. with rank of Staff Sgt., and helped train new pilots and combat crews. He later had five sons who served in Vietnam with one being killed in action.13

There is also the unparalleled story of Santor “Smiling Sandy” Sanchez, born in Joliet, Illinois, and raised by his grandmother. During the Depression he worked for the Civilian Conservation Corps after high school. At the age of 18, Mr. Sanchez enlisted in the Army Air Force and was trained as a gunner on a B-17 Flying Fortress bomber. He flew many bombing missions, sometimes two on the same day, between the fall of 1943 and the spring of 1944.

He was entitled to stop after flying 25 missions but volunteered to fly until he had flown 44 missions. He flew more combat missions than any other American flyer. During his missions, he shot down half a dozen Nazi fighter planes and received a chest full of ribbons and medals, including the Distinguished Flying Cross, Silver Star, Soldier’s Medal, and Air Medal with 10 oak leaf clusters. The Solder’s Medal was won for his bravery when he jumped inside a runaway airplane and saved it from crashing into a hanger. The 8th Air Force had even named a flying fortress the “Smilin Sandy Sanchez” with the hero’s caricature painted on the fuselage. He was the first American flyer to be honored with such a tribute. After his combat tour of duty, he was stationed in the United States and then decided to return to the front lines and flew an additional 22 missions for a grand total of 66. Mr. Sanchez’s last letter home to his grandmother arrived on March 13, 1945. Two days later, his plane was lost over Germany. Four of the crew bailed out and became prisoners of war. In October of 1945, Mr. Sanchez was officially declared dead. His body was never recovered.14

Mexican American served with the Tank Corps as well. Alfred Serrato of Chanute, Kansas, served under General George Patton with the 3rd Army Tank Corps. Mr. Serrato was in constant combat for nearly 37 days as a tank rifleman-scout before he was seriously wounded. In 1993, he received his belated Purple Heart-fifty years after being shot.15 Pete Zamorano of Wichita, Kansas also served with the 3rd Army Tank Corps under the command of General George Patton. Mr. Zamorano landed on Omaha Beach one month after D-Day, his unit driving deeper and deeper into Europe against intensified German resistance. In one fierce battle, his tank was hit. As Mr. Zamorano climbed out of the tank he was wounded. In another bloody battle, he saved the life of another soldier whose tank had been seriously damaged. For his wartime deeds, Mr. Zamorano received several medals, including one bronze star with cluster and the Purple Heart with cluster. In 1996, the mayor of Saint Lo, France presented medals to the American men who had liberated his town, including Mr. Zamorano.16

As a result of their railroad background in civilian life, many Mexican American men worked on the railroads during their war years. Carlos Saenz of Peabody, Kansas, was [Page 23] assigned to the 729th Railroad Battalion, Company A. He landed on Omaha Beach, two weeks after D-Day, to build railroad lines to continue the fight deeper and faster into Europe.17

Overseas, Mexican American sometimes ran into friends or met soldiers from other units and asked how their friends from back home were doing. Pete Zamorano of Wichita, Kansas, remembered seeing his friend Paul Flores in France, who was coming back from the front lines with his unit. When they met, they gave each other an abrazo, an embrace. Mr. Zamorano said they talked a while and then stared at each other one more time, not knowing whether they might see each other alive again. Sometimes, Mexican American soldiers gave handwritten messages to other soldiers to personally deliver to their friends. Needless to say, it was devastating when Mexican American solders learned second-hand that a hometown friend had been killed or taken prisoner.18

Mexican Americans Killed in Action

The Midwest Mexican American community suffered terrible casualties and heart wrenching deaths. The savagery of war took its heartbroken toll on families, especially mothers and wives. Tragedy so overpowering, shocking, and deeply painful. Several Mexican American men lost their lives in World War II, both on the battlefield and in military accidents at home.

As the war dragged on, many of the silver stars on the windows of grief-stricken residences were replaced by gold ones-indicating family members killed in action. Black wreaths were placed on the doors of Mexican homes. Nearly every Mexican community in the Midwest lost sons in World War II. Ironically, when they brought home the bodies, the caskets, which were draped with both the Mexican and American flags, sometimes had to be carried to the church because the streets in the segregated Mexican communities were not paved and the rain-soaked mud prevented the hearse from driving to the church.19

Several Fort Madison, Iowa, Mexican Americans were decorated with honor. Two of them killed in the South Pacific Theater. Twenty-four Mexican American soldiers from the greater Kansas City area were killed in action between l941 and l945. The city of St. Louis, Missouri was home to five Mexican American men who died in battle, while the town of Chanute, Kansas had four of its young Mexican men killed in World War II. Teresa Moreno of Kansas City, Kansas sadly recalled that: "My father was killed in World War II. He had four brothers in the service with him. I was only four years old when he died. His brothers took his loss very hard and never fully recovered emotionally from his death."20

To be a five-star family during World War II was considered an American honor. But it also meant that the chances of having a son killed was extremely high according to several people who lost brothers. Some of the people who suffered losses were Guadalupe Sandoval and Lucy (Manzano) Moreno of Sterling, Illinois, and Mike Valente of Rock Falls, Illinois. 21 Mr. Sandoval had two brothers who served in World War II and one was lost in action. Mrs. Moreno was born in Arizona in 1930. Her brother Tom was killed in action in 1944. She recalled the gold star that was posted on the house indicating her brother had been killed in action. Her two sisters worked in war-related industries. Mr. Valiente was born in Sterling in 1922. He and his brother Louis served in World War II. His brother was killed at the Battle of the Bulge. Mr. Valente’s sisters Alice and Helen worked in a munitions plant while his wife JoAnn worked at a local steel mill.

The Mexican communities in East Chicago and Gary, Indiana, together lost 14 young Mexican Americans while Milwaukee lost four, and St. Joseph, Missouri, lost two. And many others were lost from Mexican American communities throughout the Midwest.

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A handful of Mexican families in the Midwest tragically lost more than one son in the war."Ray Rangel of Topeka, Kansas recalled that: The Rangel family of Topeka included six brothers who served in World War II and Korea. John was killed in Luzon in the Philippines while his brother Jose was killed only six days later. Needless to say, the grief was unbearable. All of us had grown up together, gone to the same schools, hanged [sic] around as teenagers. We were one big extended family." 22

Other Mexican American brothers made the supreme sacrifice. Petra Rodriguez of Dodge City, Kansas discussed the sacrifices of her brothers during the war: Robert, a member of the l0th Army Infantry, was killed in France on July 2l, l944....he was cut down in fierce fighting that followed the invasion of Normandy. Rudy, a member of the 9th Engineers, was wounded on July 4, l944, recovered, and was sent back to the front lines. He died on December 3l, l944, in the Battle of the Bulge. Mike, another brother, served as a member of the 3rd Armored Division. He was injured, but survived shrapnel injuries to his legs.23

Ila Plasencia of Des Moines, Iowa lost two brothers during the war and said: "One of my brothers died in the Philippines. He survived the Death March but died in a prison camp. Another brother was killed during pilot training here in the states. Their deaths stunned the entire Mexican community of Des Moines. We also lost Ray Martinez from nearby Newton, Iowa."24

The Mexican community in Davenport, Iowa, lost two brothers, Ralph Vasquez of the U.S. Army infantry and his brother Albert, U.S. Army airborne. Silvis, Illinois lost brothers Frank and Joseph Sandoval, ten months apart; Frank was killed on the Burma Road, while his brother Joseph died in Germany. Their brother, Tony Sandoval, observed that his brothers’ deaths were not in vain and, instead, opened the doors of opportunity after the war. 25 

He noted, for example, the positive changes for the community because of both the G.I. Bill and Mexican Americans becoming part of the union ranks. He said that there were citizenship and voter registration campaigns during the late 1940’s and early 1950's in the Mexican community. In addition to the Sandoval brothers, four other Mexican American men from tiny Silvis, Illinois, lost their lives.26

Besides those killed in action, there were many stories of fate and luck. One such person is Alfredo R. Lopez of Wichita, Kansas. Mr. Lopez graduated from bombardier school as a 2nd Lt. and was assigned to a light bomber group, the only Mexican American among a B-17 crew of ten. He said he prayed a lot and carried the Medal of Our Lady of Guadalupe around his neck. His first bombing run was over France hitting German installations. His plane also dropped supplies over Russia to aid the Polish underground’s war of resistance against the Nazis. One day, Mr. Lopez substituted for another bombardier who could not join his crew during a bombing operation. In return, the substitute took Mr. Lopez’s place the next day on Mr. Lopez’s plane. As fate would have it, Mr. Lopez plane was shot down and several crew members were killed including the substitute bombardier. Mr. Lopez eventually made 31 combat flights, the last one bombing oil refineries deep in Germany. Mr. Lopez retired from the Air Force as a major in 1979.27

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Other unsung heroes included a small group of courageous Mexican American men held as prisoners of war. These included Rupert Lona of Kansas City, Missouri; Joseph Artega, Benny Rodriguez, and Salvador Chavez of Topeka, Kansas; Luis Paredes and Joe Gomez of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; Eddie Graham of Hutchinson, Kansas, Antonio “Tony” Gonzales of Deerfield, Kansas; Manuel Robles of Garden City, Kansas; and Joe Lopez of Davenport, Iowa.28 Gonzales died in a POW camp. Other POW’s from Kansas and Missouri included Ted Pantoja, Moses Lopez, Gene Martinez, Tony Espinoza, Augustin Mora, and Tony Rivera.

John Sanchez was taken prisoner when Corregidor fell to the Japanese. He remained a prisoner of war for two years after which the War Department reported him as missing in action and presumably killed.29 Lt. Trinidad O. Rios, a former resident of North Platte and Scottsbluff, Nebraska was also captured by the enemy. He was held as a POW from March of 1944 until May of 1945. He was awarded the Air Medal.30 Nick Hernandez of Wichita, Kansas, was a prisoner of war for nearly three years after he was captured in Italy.31

Another Death March POW was David Chapa of St. Paul, Minnesota. Simon Velasquez, also from St. Paul, was a German POW and was interned in the infamous Stalag 17.32 A Mexican American POW from Topeka, Kansas, vividly remembered his time as a German prisoner:  "We were found by the Germans and taken prisoners. We traveled first by truck and later by train to a prison camp in Germany. This camp held 3,500 military prisoners from many nations. Our living conditions were terrible, with no heat, poor clothing, and little to eat. We had to sleep three abreast on wooden bunks."

We were liberated on April l5, l945, by the English after five months of detainment. We had a feeling of great joy as we ran toward the gates to meet our liberators.33

World War II Honors

Mexican Americans distinguished themselves as brave defenders of democracy on the battlefield during World War II. Nationwide, 250,000 Mexican Americans suffered casualties while demonstrating their sheer bravery and fortitude.34 These battle wounds included bullet and shrapnel wounds, blown-off limbs, malaria, burns, frostbite, and the emotional and psychological horrors of war including shellshock. The vast majority of wounded Mexican American servicemen returned to the states on hospital ships. Hospital wards in the United States were filled with Mexican American soldiers waiting for the long period of convalescence.

Mike Morado of Kansas City spent barely two months in France but still suffers from nightmares, trapped by the horrors of war. He was a scout behind German lines in eastern France. His job was to draw fire from the Germans and, thus, expose their positions. He also gathered intelligence from French citizens regarding German positions. Mr. Morado was wounded. He earned the Combat Infantryman’s Badge, and the Bronze Star. Forty years later, he returned to France to visit the site where he had been shot so long ago.35

Many Mexican men were wounded more than once. On April 16, 1942, Nick Castillo from St. Paul, Minnesota, was drafted into the army at Gibbong, Minnesota. Mr. Castillo was assigned to the Second Division which later participated in the D-Day invasion in Normandy on June 6, 1944. Shortly after the landing, Mr. Castillo was wounded. Several weeks later, he was wounded again. The second time was much more serious and he was returned to his parents in St. Paul.36

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Midwestern Mexican Americans, as a group of servicemen, were highly decorated during the war. The heroic group of young Mexican Americans from Depue, Illinois, was typical of most Mexican American communities, earning such medals and decorations as the Purple Heart, the Asiatic-Pacific ribbon, the Philippine Liberation Medal, the Victory Medal, the American Campaign ribbon, the European-African Theater ribbon, the European-African-Middle Eastern ribbon, the Combat Infantry Badge, the Distinguished Unit medal, the Meritorious Unit Award, and the American Defense ribbon. The tiny Mexican American community of Hershey, Nebraska sent over 40 men to war. This group alone won 9 Purple Hearts, two Bronze Stars (Raymond Reyes and Andrew Contreras) and one Silver Star (Sisto Briseno). Rick Arrellano had been recommended for the Silver Star for bravery, but his captain died before full confirmation of his fearless actions. Instead, Mr. Arrellano received the Bronze Star.37 In Garden City, Kansas, Ezequiel Ledesma and Manuel Robles came home highly decorated. Nick Ortiz earned five Bronze Star decorations for combat in Italy and North Africa.38 Sgt. Albert Barreiro of East Chicago, Indiana, was killed coming to the aid of a fallen buddy on December 15, 1944 at Leyte Island. He was awarded the Silver Star for his heroic act.39

Overall, Midwest Mexican Americans have won at least five Congressional Medals of Honor in various wars. Pvt. Manuel Perez, who was born in Oklahoma City and lived in Chicago before the war, was one of the soldiers who won the Medal of Honor. He volunteered for the airborne infantry and was assigned to Company A, 511 Parachute Infantry of the 11th Airborne. Pvt. Perez distinguished himself twice in combat, on February l3 and March l4, 1945.  Perez killed 18 Japanese single handily during these assaults, and perhaps more than 75 counting those who had been killed by his grenades: It was on March 14 while on patrol in enemy territory that he was killed. Facing heavy rifle and machine-gun fire, Perez immediately volunteered to protect the withdrawal of the other men in his patrol. He was mortally wounded while exchanging fire with the enemy.40  Every year, the Mexican American G.I. Forum of Oklahoma City places a wreath at the grave site of Manuel Perez Jr.

Sgt. Veto R. Bertoledo of Decatur, Illinois, also won the Congressional Medal of Honor during World War II. He killed 40 Germans in Hatten, France on January 9 and 10, 1945 while serving with the 42nd Division.41 In addition to the Congressional Medal of Honor, several Mexican Americans earned the Silver Star or the Bronze Star, given for valor. According to Lando Valendez of Des Moines, Iowa:

"On July 1, 1944, in Shubert, France, three other G.I.’s and myself captured a German bunker and took 47 prisoners. On July 12, 1944, I was wounded. I was also part of the American forces that liberated the concentration camp of Dachau, and I couldn’t believe the horrors we discovered. I later received the Silver and Bronze Stars and the Purple Heart."42

All of the Mexican American men and women interviewed for this article vividly remembered where they were and what they were doing when they heard the news that the long ordeal of war had finally ended. Needless to say, there were many tears of bittersweet joy.  Charles Garcia of Omaha, Nebraska distinctly recalled that:

"I was serving in Europe when we learned that the United States had dropped the atomic bomb on the Japanese. We knew that the war was finally over. I prayed about coming home and seeing my family. I was both happy and sad, because I was alive but at the same time so many young men had given their lives for our country."43

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Mr. Garcia was born in Jackson, Nebraska in 1921. He served in England during the war as a flight engineer for both B-17s and B-24s. He became active with the post-war civil rights movement. Also, Sam Moreno remembered when the war ended because he was preparing for the invasion of Japan.44  Mr. Moreno’s family had three brothers in the service. He served in the navy off Africa. He was preparing to invade Japan by land when the war ended. After the war, he retired from a steel company after 41 years of service.

Summary

The year 2000 marked the 55th anniversary of the end of World War II which has rekindled renewed appreciation from the Mexican American community for the women and men who safeguarded our nation during this troublesome time. As a result, several Midwest Mexican American communities have held celebrations and other special tributes to the people who defended this country so gallantly over a half century ago. For example, a banquet was held in Kansas City, Missouri honoring World War II veterans. The 1994 fiesta in Newton, Kansas was also dedicated to the contributions of Mexican American women and men during World War II.45 The local museum in Newton hosted a photo exhibit highlighting the impressive war record of Mexican American servicemen as well as Mexican American defense workers. North Platte, Nebraska saluted its veterans in 1990 with the theme “From the Beet Fields to the Battlefields.”

World War II was a bittersweet experience for Mexican American men in the Midwest. Mexican American soldiers returning from overseas were discriminated against in education, employment, housing, the legal system, voting rights and public accommodations. The war caused great physical and emotional trauma for thousands of Mexican men and their families. Yet, World War II marked a political and social turning point, as returning Mexican American servicemen were now determined to win, once and for all, their civil rights. Thus, after all their sacrifices, they would assert, along with Mexican American women, their right to full American citizenship at home. In 1945, the entire Mexican community was rejoicing and looking forward to a brighter future.

1This article is an excerpt from an unpublished manuscript titled, “Cuentos y Encuentros: An Oral History of Mexicans in the Midwestern United States, 1900-1979.” Many of the individuals cited are now deceased. This article is dedicated to their memory and wartime contributions.

2World War II movies which have generally ignored Mexican Americans include The Longest Day, Back to Battan, Steel Helmet, To Hell and Back, The Flying Tigers, The Best Years of Our Lives, Iwo Jima, Saving Private Ryan, Halls of Montezuma, The Guns of Navaro,and the Thin Red Line. Rare exceptions after the 1940's included Giant, The Guy Galderban Story, and The Dirty Dozen. As a result of the Good Neighbor Policy in the 1940's, Hollywood did make a handful of films depicting Mexican American Servicemen including: Air Force, The Human Comedy, Battle Ground, Objective Burma, Medal for Benny, Battan, and Guadalcanal Diary. In recent years, independent Chicano filmmakers have released a handful of movies depicting the role of the Mexican American servicemen during World War II, including Memories of Hell, The Men of Company E, and Hero Street.

3Santillan, Richard (1989 and 1995) “Rosita the Riveter: Midwest Mexican American Women During World War II, 1941-1945,” Perspectives in Mexican American Studies, Mexicans In The Midwest, Vol. 2, and “Midwestern Mexican American Women and the Struggle for Gender Equality: A Historical Overview, 1920s-1960s,” Perspectives in Mexican American Studies: Mexican American Women, Changing Images, Vol. 5, Mexican American Studies and Research Center, The University of Arizona, Tucson.

4Lopez, David A, (1998). Saving Private Aztlan: Preserving The History of Latino Service In Wartime. Unpublished paper, 1998, p. 1, author’s files.

5Gomez, Hazel (personal communication, September 11, 1994), Topeka, Kansas.

6Rhoads, Paula (1998) “Former Mayor A Walking History Book,” Dodge City Daily Globe, 1992. Back home from the war, Louie Sanchez followed in his father’s footsteps by working for the railroad because he figured it would be a lifetime job. But as diesel engines replaced steam locomotives, which required less people for service between stops, the railroad companies began dismissing workers. Two months short of 10 years and a pension, the railroad terminated Louie from a job he had worked “ten days a week” as a result of double shifts every other day.

7Rocha, Augustine (Augie) (personal comunication, February 19, 1987) Kansas City, Missouri.

8Martinez, Ricardo L. (written communication January 2, 1999) Kansas City, Missouri.

9Ybarra, Paul (personal communication September 4, 1998) Wellington, Kansas.

10Artega, Cirilo (personal communication September 15, 1998) Wichita, Kansas.

11Cuellar, Russ (personal communication September 16, 1998) Newton, Kansas.

12Belman, Joseph L. (written communication April 2, 1998) Lockport, Illinois.

13Garcia, Charles (personal communication, author’s files) Omaha, Nebraska. Also see the G.I. Forumeer, March/April, 1995, p. 9.

14Whiteside, John 1992, February 13 and 1994, August 30) Joliet Herald-News entitled “Sandy Sanchez was a real hero and he was one of our own,” and “Sandy Sanchez—tough times couldn’t stop him,” . Also Feldman, March ( 1993, November 4) “Honors sought for Hispanic war hero Sanchez,” Joliet Herald News.

15Butcher, Stu (1993, November 27) “Local Vet Surprised With Medal,” The Chanute Tribute.

16Zamorano, Pete (personal communication September 15, 1998), Wichita, Kansas.

17(1994, June 1) “D-Day: Marion County was Represented: Veterans Share Stories of Campaign,” Marion County Record, author’s files.

18Zamorano, Pete (personal communication September 15, 1998) Wichita, Kansas.

19 Terronez, Joe (personal communication June 21 and 25, 1986), Silvis, Illinois. Mr.Terronez noted that Vicente Ximenes, who served as Executive Director of the Mexican American Affairs Office during the Johnson Administration, led the federal effort to support the renaming of 2nd Street to Hero Street in Silvis, Illinois. On October 31, 1971 Hero Street was dedicated with the help of both major political parties. The two Sandoval families of Silvis, Illinois, for example, sent thirteen boys to both World War II and Korea. Three of the young men were killed in combat.

20Moreno, Teresa (personal communication February 28, 1987) Kansas City, Kansas.

21Sandoval, Guadalupe (personal communication May 27, 1987), Sterling, Illinois; Valiente, Mike (personal communication March 24, 1987) Rock Falls, Illinois; and Moreno, Lucy (Manzano) (personal communication May 27, 1987) Sterling, Illinois.

22Rangel, Ray (personal communication February 13, 1987) Topeka, Kansas.

23Rodriguez, Petra (personal communication June 24, 1988) Dodge City, Kansas. Ms. Rodriguez was born in 1904. The small city of Chanute, Kansas, lost four men including Phillip Gutierrez, an outstanding baseball player.

24Plasencia, Ila (personal communication June 17, 1987) Des Moines, Iowa. Also Rodriguez Cipriana (personal communication January 13, 1987) Garden City, Kansas. Njila, Manuel (personal communication April 25, 1987) Aurora, Illinois. His brother Jesse was killed in the South Pacific while another brother Porfilio was wounded. A younger brother, Robert, was wounded in Vietnam. Also killed during the war was Joe Hernandez of Davenport, Iowa. Pete Macias (written communication April 4, 1998) Davenport, Iowa.

25Sandoval, Tanilo (Tony) (personal correspondence June 21, 1986) East Moline, Illinois.

26Terronez, Joe (personal communication June 25, 1986) Silvis, Illinois. Also Martinez, Vallentin (personal communication May 18, 1987) East Chicago, Indiana, and Garcia, Manuel (personal communication March 23, 1987) Sterling, Illinois.

27Lopez, Alfredo R. (personal communication September 15, 1998) Wichita, Kansas.

28Lona Jr., Wesley H.(personal communication June 5, 1987), Kansas City, Missouri. Also Rodriguez, Cipriana (personal communication January 13, 1987) Garden City, Kansas.

29Rocha, Augustine (Augie) (written communication February 7, 1996) Kansas City, Missouri.

30Laguna, Albert (written communication January 11, 1999) San Jose, California.

31Zamorano, Pete (personal communication September 16, 1998) Wichita, Kansas.

32Coates, Nicha (personal communication 1998) St. Paul, Minnesota. Two other Mexican American soldiers from St. Paul, Nick Castillo and Conrad Vega, fought at the Battle of the Bulge.

33Topeka’s 55th Anniversary issue, author’s files. The Mexican community of Topeka lost several men in World War II.

34Limbert, Claudia (1978, June 15) Invisible People: The Mexican Community In Newton, Kansas, A Research Paper Presented to the Department of History, Bethel College, North Newton, Kansas, p. 43. Martinez, Robert (personal communication, April 4, 1998) Davenport, Iowa.

35Dos Mundos, (1989, October 15-18), p. 14, author’s files.

36Ramirez, Joan E. (1998, March), “Nicolas Castillo ‘El Rey Del Corrido’ The Life and Times Of A Man And His Music,” La Voz, , p. 9.

37North Platte Telegraph, (1993, April 3) author’s files.

38Avila, Henry (1997) "The Mexican American Community In Garden City, 1900-1950," Kansas History: A Journal of the Central Plains, Vol. 20, No. 1.

39Vasquez, Robert (written communication 1998), East Chicago, Indiana, author’s files.

40Morin, Raul (1966) Among the Valiant: Mexican Americans in World War and Korea, Borden Publishing Company, Alhambra, California, p. 2l6. See Torres, Ruben (1991, February), “The Legion Remembers Manuel Perez,” American Legion Magazine. Other publications focusing on the contributions of Mexicans during World War II include Allsup, Carl (1982), The American G.I. Forum: Origins and Evolution, The University of Texas Press; Austin, Ramos, Henry A.J. (1982), A People Forgotten, A Dream Pursued: The History of the G.I. Forum 1948-1972, American G.I. Forum, Washington, D.C.; and U.S. Defense Department (1984), Hispanics In American Defense, U.S. Assistant Secretary of Defense, Pentagon.

41Ibid., p. l67. Also,Amaro, Candelario (personal communication January 21, 1987) Dodge City, Kansas. Mr. Amaro served in the Pacific during the war and became very active with the post-war civil rights movement. Dominguez, Linda (written communication July 29, 1994) Gary, Indiana.

42Valendez, Lando (personal communication) Des Moines, Iowa. Also Boyos, John G. (personal communication March 7, 1987) Chanute, Kansas. Mr. Boyos won the Bronze Star in the Pacific.

43Garcia, Charles (Chuck) (personal communication June 2, 1987) Omaha, Nebraska. Also,Zuniga, Manuel (personal communication June 5, 1987) Kansas City, Kansas. Mr. Zuniga was born in Mexico in 1913 and fought in World War II between 1942-1945.

44Moreno, Sam (personal communication May 27, 1987) Sterling, Illinois.

45Olais, Ray (telephone communication) Newton, Kansas, author’s files.

Sent by Albert V. Vela, Ph.D.  cristorey@comcast.net 

http://www.csupomona.edu/~jis/2001/Santillan.pdf

Time Magazine 100 Most Influential People of 2007

Time Magazine is solicitating votes for the 100 most influential people of 2007 – and Mr. Burns is a candidate – check it out at:  Time.com

Here’s what his profile reads:
KEN BURNS
OCCUPATION: Documentary filmmaker, producer
NUMBER OF TIME COVERS: 0
PREVIOUS APPEARANCES ON THE TIME 100: 1

PRO: The War, a gripping, shocking 15-hour docu-odyssey exploring the dark side of "The Good War," reminded the country that Burns is more than pledge-drive filler.
CON: Burns was initially criticized for failing to interview Latino soldiers. After some initial resistance, he addressed this with new interviews.

Everyone can vote on each of the about 200 people being consider for the final 100. At the moment, Burns is number 87. It’s easy to vote.  TIME.com. Click on the “The Time 100 Poll:  Who is Worthy?” button on the right side of the page, middle. Once there, scroll down past the advertisements to “See the Complete List.”

Again, he’s listed in the 80s... A “1” vote is the lowest...and “100” is the highest.  Just though you’d all would like to know.  
Nancy C.   lanancyd@sbcglobal.net  

For more information on DEFEND THE HONOR issues, go to:  www.DefendTheHonor.org 

Memorial Day Celebrations, May 30th

Veterans Day National Committee, 
Seeking Submissions for Poster Artists

Smithsonian Develops Photo Initiative

School's Mendez Family Bookshelf 
tells story of inclusion
By Julie Anne Ines, 
The Orange County Register, April 9, 2008

Library section at Los Amigos High School reminds students of landmark desegregation decision and their own diversity.

School's Mendez Family Bookshelf tells story of inclusion
RECOMMENDED READING: About 100 books comprise 
the Mendez Family Bookshelf at Los Amigos High.

FOUNTAIN VALLEY – The books on  the Mendez Family Bookshelf in Los  Amigos High School's library have a  few stories to tell. Individually, they tell the stories of

 people from different ethnic, religious and social groups. Collectively, they tell the story of the campus Human Relations Club's effort to remind students of the landmark

 Mendez v. Westminster decision, which  desegregated California schools, and to

 recognize the number of diverse voices  that make up the Fountain Valley campus'

own student body.

The bookshelf and the case are "about inclusivity. Where are we in our history books?" said Maricela Jauregui of Orange County Human Relations, which guides the high school's Human Relations Club.

While inspired by the Mendez v. Westminster decision, which has its 61st anniversary Monday, the approximately 100 books that sit on the shelf aren't just about the case that paved the way for the Brown v. Board of Education ruling that desegregated schools across the nation.

Each book on the shelf was chosen with the diversity of the student body in mind, featuring stories of people from different religious and ethnic backgrounds, as well as books about the gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender community.

Even though a lot of the books are fiction, they are "true" stories in the sense that people can relate to them, said club member Pedro Hernandez, a junior.

"I wanted to make sure if there were students like me that wanted to read about a certain thing that they have three or four books that they could look at," Hernandez said.

Members of the club began the Mendez Family Book Campaign, which provided books for the shelf, in the 2006-07 school year after a club retreat.

According to Jauregui, students on the trip were asked to put together a poem by picking out a favorite line from a variety of books that they hadn't necessarily seen before.

"There was this kind of look in their faces to see books written about Filipinos, Chicanos, different religions, different ethnicities. … You could see them relate directly to these books," Jauregui said.

The club would build on this idea of inclusion within literature and the Mendez case's message of inclusion on campus to create the bookshelf.

The students compiled a list of books they wanted and then asked members of the community for monetary donations or for the books themselves. The bookcase was finally unveiled during the school's Open Mic Night event about a year ago.

Former Human Relations Club member Rebeca Guerrero said that by putting the bookshelf together she just wanted to give peers an opportunity to find themselves. A "lot of them can say they know who they are, but a lot of them really don't know," said Guerrero, who is now a freshman at Santa Ana College.

For their efforts, the club was recognized by O.C. Human Relations as an outstanding school during an awards banquet last year.

Contact the writer: jines@ocregister.com or 714-445-6604

About Mendez v. Westminster

1945: Gonzalo Mendez, Thomas Estrada, David Melendez, William Guzman, Frank Palomino and Lorenzo Ramirez sue the Westminster School District because their children were turned away from the district's all-white school.

1946:A Los Angeles judge rules in favor of Mendez and his co-plaintiffs, stating that school segregation was an unconstitutional denial of equal protection. The district appeals the decision.

1947:In response to the case, the Ninth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals orders an end to segregation in California schools.

1954:The U.S. Supreme Court outlaws the "separate but equal" doctrine with its decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. The Mendez case is cited by NAACP lawyer and future Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall.  
Sent by Ricardo Valverde

Going to School under an American Rainbow  
by 
Galal Kernahan

  galal@comline.com  

               (The “Corrected” August 1, 1947, U.S. Ninth Circuit Court of Appeal “Westminster School District v. Mendez” opinion was so flawed it could not serve as a legal precedent to close de facto “Mexican” schools anywhere.) 

States aim to help military families

By GARY SCHARRER
Copyright 2008 Houston Chronicle Austin Bureau

AUSTIN — The inability of many Texas students to write and speak good English is like a dreadful disease requiring aggressive treatment, say some education advocates who want to use different teaching approaches.

Social conservatives on the State Board of Education, influenced in part by a retired teacher, are backing a new curriculum that increases the focus on basics, including grammar.

They've met fierce resistance from teachers and educators who warn this emphasis will prepare students for the 1950s, not the 21st century, and embarrass Texas in the process.

They fear the state's proposed new standards for reading and English language arts contradict established research and will only make things worse.

"The results will be bloody," predicted one of those language experts, former English professor Joyce Armstrong Carroll.

A fight over the board's perceived exclusion of Hispanic experts from development of the curriculum has overshadowed this larger struggle.

A public comment period on the proposed curriculum will end May 18, and the 15-member board is to take final action on May 22. If approved, it will guide how the state's 4.7 million public schoolchildren learn English and reading over the next decade.

Much of the debate focuses on grammar and reading comprehension. The controversy is being fanned, in part, by Donna Garner, a retired English and Spanish teacher in Hewitt. Garner writes education-related e-mails and contributes to My StudyHall.com.

Students must learn precise communication skills, and grammar requirements must be spelled out with explicit language, she argues.

"We have a disease in Texas — our students do not know how to write and speak English well," Garner said. "We need to treat the disease aggressively.

"The skills need to build upon each other as the student progresses from one grade level to the next. Learning the basics of the English language will provide students with a strong foundation upon which to write sophisticated papers and upon which to base clear communication," she said.

The integration of grammar with writing has been taught in Texas for the past 15 years without much success, Garner said, citing statistics showing half of Texas college freshmen are in need of remedial education, compared to only 28 percent nationally.

Teachers, parents and employers are appalled by the lack of speaking and writing skills, she said.

Ignoring research

But some experts warn of dire consequences of teaching grammar separately from writing and skimping on reading comprehension.

Standardized tests like TAKS and the SAT don't examine grammar skills in isolation — they test comprehension, said Carroll, a former professor of English and writing at McMurry University, author and co-director of Abydos Learning International in Texas.

Carroll was part of a professional educators' coalition that offered input during the three-year process of writing standards for the state's proposed English curriculum.

Some coalition members take a dim view of State Board of Education Chairman Don McLeroy, a Bryan dentist, and board member David Bradley of Beaumont, who have helped lead the push for a back-to-basics approach.

"Would anyone believe that the coalition's research is bogus, but a dentist from Bryan is right ... and a man without a degree from Beaumont is right?" Carroll said.

Bradley says he and McLeroy "are eminently qualified because, first of all, we're parents, we're businesspeople and we're taxpayers."

Many parents, he said, complain that the current curriculum standards are "so confusing, so vague, so mushy that nobody can understand them, so we have this industry to help people interpret and explain and develop strategies and techniques to teach this mush."

The proposed standards ignore at least 50 years of research on grammar instruction, counters Kylene Beers of The Woodlands, president-elect of the National Council of Teachers of English and a senior reading adviser to secondary schools in the Reading Writing Project at Teachers College at Columbia University.

People who yearn for a return to the basics usually attended school in the 1950s, and by the end of that decade only 20 percent of the best paying jobs required at least some college, she said, in contrast to today's figure of 56 percent.

"When we talk about getting back to the basics in literacy education, the first thing that smart people have to do is to realize that literacy demands have shifted. What's basic now isn't the same as what was basic when middle-aged adults of today were in school," she said.

Both sides view the fight over reading comprehension as bigger than the one over grammar.

"They have renamed 'whole language' as comprehension. It's down to the classic debate of phonics versus whole language," Bradley said.

Keeping it professional

Decades of research into how children learn shows that drilling the basics does not achieve desired results, said Alana Morris, language arts program director of the Aldine school district and president of the Coalition of Reading and English Supervisors of Texas.

"If you drill the basics on handouts and worksheets, then that's where kids will be able to apply them," she said. "The bottom line is that drilling doesn't transfer into solid writing."

Teaching grammar is important, "but we want to teach it clearly so that kids can actually transfer it into their writing," Morris said. "Teaching grammar in drills makes no sense, whatsoever, to them."

The proposal calls for students to learn how to infer the importance of a setting in a story in one grade level, visualize the setting in the next grade and then summarizing the setting two grade levels later, she said.

"It's the most ludicrous thing I have ever seen in my entire life," Morris said. "Each year with higher level text you should learn how to draw inferences, how to ask questions, how to synthesize information, how to summarize."

Teachers will remain professional if the State Board of Education approves the pending document, Morris said.

"Teachers are not the type that will march on Austin," she said, adding that experienced teachers will simply ignore the new English textbooks.

Outstanding Migrant Students To Be Recognized

March 25, 2008  

AUSTIN, Texas — High school migrant students from across the state will be recognized at a special ceremony at 11:30 a.m. on March 31 during the annual Migrant Student Recognition Ceremony at The University of Texas at Austin.

The ceremony in the ballroom of the Texas Union will honor Texas students who have completed distance learning courses through the university's Migrant Student Graduation Enhancement Program in the Division of Continuing Education. The program provides learning tools, services, courses, computer equipment and software applications that enable migrant students to meet or exceed requirements for high school graduation.

“The focus of the ceremony is on these accomplished students. The theme will be the new César Chávez statue located on the West Mall in the heart of the university’s campus,” said Dr. Judy C. Ashcroft, dean of continuing and innovative education. “The statue is an ideal symbol for migrant students since César Chávez devoted his life to improving the living conditions of farm workers. Its presence on the university campus conveys the message that migrant students belong on a college campus.”

Forty exemplary migrant students featured in the 2008 Exemplary Migrant Student publication will be recognized at the ceremony that will be held on the birthday of César Chávez. Two of the featured students will be named as “Students of the Year.” They and three other exemplary migrant students will each receive a $2,000 college scholarship from ExxonMobil. The checks will be presented by Rosendo Cruz, program officer for education and diversity at ExxonMobil.

“It is an honor to recognize these high school migrant students for overcoming the difficulties of their migrant lifestyle and for achieving academic excellence and leadership roles in their schools and communities,” said Ashcroft, who will give the welcoming remarks for the event. “I value the opportunity to encourage these outstanding students to continue their educations beyond high school and to invite them to apply for admission to The University of Texas at Austin.”

Dr. Felipe Alanis, associate dean of continuing education and K-16 education, will preside at the event. Senior Associate Dean of Students Margarita M. Arellano, the project director for the César Chávez statue unveiling event in October 2007, will deliver the keynote address.

About 150 migrant students, 30 parents and 40 educators from 23 school districts, including Alpine, Bastrop, Brackett, Brownsville, Donna, Eagle Pass, Edinburg, El Paso, Fabens, Fort Worth, Goose Creek, Harlingen, La Joya, Lamesa, Mission, Plains, Pharr-San Juan-Alamo, Roma, Santa Maria, Sharyland, Taylor, Uvalde and Weslaco will attend the ceremony. More than 100 guests from The University of Texas at Austin, the Texas Education Agency and the Texas Legislature also will attend the event that features a performance by the UT Ballet Folklórico.

Texas has the second-largest migrant education program and the largest interstate migrant student population in the nation. Students and their families migrate annually from Texas to 48 other states to work in agricultural and other seasonal jobs.

Since it was begun more than two decades ago, the Migrant Student Graduation Enhancement Program has enrolled more than 21,000 students in its mission to increase the graduation rate of high school migrant students in Texas. With funding from the Texas Education Agency and gifts from the Beaumont Foundation of America, ExxonMobil, the John G. and Marie Stella Kenedy Memorial Foundation and the Microsoft Corporation, the program helps Texas migrant students earn high school credits through distance learning courses that meet Texas curriculum requirements.

For more information, contact: Robert D. Meckel, Office of Public Affairs, 512-475-7847;  Peggy Wimberley, K-16 Education Center, Continuing and Innovative Education, 512-471-6037;  Kevin Wier, Continuing and Innovative Education, 512-471-2731.

Related Stories:  

• Migrant Student Award Winners Named at The University of Texas at Austin
       April 1, 2008

Office of Public Affairs
P.O. Box Z
Austin, TX 78713
512-471-3151
Fax 512-471-5812

vrsadler@aol.com

Texas State Board of Education Ignoring Needs of Hispanic Students, 
Says Tearful Berlanga

School Superintendent Threatened over

 Pledge of Allegiance in Spanish

By Matthew Rothschild, Progressive.org  
April 21, 2008

The Pledge of Allegiance is creating an uproar in a high school in southern Wisconsin. Not the Pledge itself, but the language it's recited in.

For many years now, Edgerton High School in Wisconsin has allowed students in its Spanish class to recite the Pledge of Allegiance in Spanish over the Intercom one day of the school year. It also invites foreign exchange students (the school now has three) to say it in their own language.

This year, when Spanish students recited the Pledge on March 11, it caused a ruckus.
Parents complained. They demanded that the Spanish teacher, the principal, and the superintendent be fired. And they intend to press the issue at the school board meeting on April 28.

The superintendent, Dr. Norman Fjelstad, has even been physically threatened.
"There were a couple of people who made threats," he said. "I said, 'It's a felony to threaten me,' and they apologized. Once they got set back on their heels, we had a good discussion. It's the people who leave the messages on my phone-it's like shooting you in the back. I don't even know who they are."

Fjelstad has been superintendent for 20 years. The current controversy has taken a toll.
"It's not been fun," he says. "When I went to vote I was confronted. When I went to the grocery store, I was confronted. I get about five phone calls a day. They want me removed from my position unless I'm willing to put in writing that this will never happen again. And I won't do that. We don't allow bullying in our schools, and I won't be bullied by this."

Fjelstad realized he had a problem on his hands when the phones started ringing at the administration building on March 12.  The following day, the Janesville Gazette ran a story entitled "Spanish Pledge Angers Veteran."

It quoted Todd Dix, whose son goes to the high school. "This is America; we speak English," said Dix, who retired from the National Guard last year. "I don't want any of my three boys coming home saying, 'Dad, we did the Pledge of Allegiance in Spanish.' "

His son Kyle told the paper that he thought it was disrespectful to the troops.
The article in the newspaper sparked some heated exchanges on the paper's website, so much so that the editor, Scott Angus, decided to yank the debate.

"It started out fairly high brow," Angus said, "but then it got to be a racist thing."
One said: "I go to Edgerton High School and I don't appreciate Mexicans saying the Pledge in Spanish. . . . If you think Mexicans can waltz right in this school and have an influence on these American students, then you're wrong. This is America, home of the free and not the illegal."
"I've heard their frustration," says Superintendent Fjelstad. "I understand what they're saying. They feel it dishonors our troops serving in Iraq and Afghanistan. My response is this: I know there are 400 Hispanic speaking soldiers that won't disagree with them. They can't disagree because they gave their lives in Iraq and Afghanistan. However, there are 110,000 Spanish-speaking Hispanics serving in the military that I believe would agree with me that speaking Spanish does not dishonor the military."

Fjelstad also points out that George W. Bush had the National Anthem sung in Spanish at his inaugural in 2001.  Fjelstad adds a personal point. "I have a Norwegian heritage," he says. "My father could not speak English until the third grade, and he was patriotic, and he recited the Pledge in Norwegian."  Fjelstand also notes that "our Wisconsin Constitution was written in three languages: English, German, and Norwegian. The reason it was written in three languages is because it's important that people understand the words."

On top of that, Fjelstad invokes the First Amendment to the Constitution. "Government should never mandate that the Pledge or the National Anthem be said in one language," he says.
Fjelstad's conclusion: "I see nothing wrong with what we've been doing."  But he's not sure the school board will see it that way.

"The school board has the right to overturn my decision," he says. "If they do, I won't be insubordinate. I will comply. I won't be fired. But I'll be on record as saying I disagree with that decision, and that I believe people are suppressing what is a freedom of our country."

Sent by Dr. Carlos Munoz, Jr. 
and Howard Shorr howardshorr@msn.com

“Hacienda Heights”
First English Speaking Hispanic TV Soap Opera

Chan Add Films is proud to announce, the first English speaking Hispanic soap opera in the history of television, “Hacienda Heights.” This provocative, groundbreaking new television show, takes the popular format of the traditional Telenovela introducing a profound experience to the audience. This majestic venture was brought to life by Executive Producer/CEO Mr. Desmond Gumbs and directed by Emmy Award winning Actor/Director Mr. Tom Eplin.

  The story fantastically portrays the trials and tribulations of the families in the unwavering city of “Hacienda Heights.” The conflicts that arise between the political, the wealthy and the working middle class families are universal and extremely current in today’s world. “Hacienda Heights” intriguing stories are filled with love, struggle, mystery, vengeance and the pursuit for happiness. “Hacienda Heights” seductive characters will enrapture you from its premier episode!

Take a sneak peek of this invigorating and tantalizing show at www.HaciendaHeightsTV.com or www.youtube.com/haciendaheightstv. View our amazing cast and see the excitement that will explode Daytime TV on fire Monday, May 5 Cinco de Mayo

Desmond Gumbs CEO  
Chan Add Films  
HaciendaHeightsTV@yahoo.com  
www.HaciendaHeightsTV.com  
Office: (510) 444-1899   Fax: (510) 444-3038  
337 13th Street Suite 208, 

Oakland, CA 94612

National Poetry Month/Mes nacional de la poesía

In celebration of National Poetry Month, a gift for you, poets all, who share in my work. National Poetry Month is a celebration of poetry first introduced in 1996 by the Academy of American Poets as a way to increase awareness and appreciation.

Rafael Jesús González  
Muro en La Habana/Wall in Havana, Rafael Jesús González  
El Poeta Leyendo/The Poet Reading, Judy Cheung  
El Poeta, poeta eres tú que lees  
© Rafael Jesús González 2008
(grafiti en una pared de La Habana)

El poeta dice sus versos
                        al deslizarse el lápiz
                  sobre el blanco -
                   enigmas de quimeras y dragones
                  de lirios y de jaras
                    de nubes pesadas como plomo

                     peñascos livianos como suspiros.

                                Allí quedan

                        ni más ni menos encantados
                      que una mosca prisionera
                        en una gota de ámbar.
                   Allí esperan que los rescate

                        otro poeta -

                                tú, lector

                                que descifras

                                estas letras.

The poet says his verses
                        as the pencil glides
                    over the blank -
                    enigmas of chimeras & dragons
                   of lilies & of darts
                    of clouds heavy as lead

                        boulders light as sighs.

                                There they remain

                        no more no less enchanted
                       than a fly imprisoned
                   in a drop of amber.
                     There they wait to be rescued

                        by another poet -

                                you, reader

                                who deciphers

                                these letters.

May 1, 2008
La Peña presents two of the most influential 
young singer-songwriters   
of Mexico & Puerto Rico 

Mauricio Diaz, El Hueso from Mexico

Fernandito Ferrer from Puerto Rico

 Thursday, May 1st.   8pm $10.  
La Peña Cultural Center, 3105 Shattuck Ave. Berkeley

510-849-2568  www.lapena.org
fena@lapena.org

The most influential young singer-songwriters of Mexico & Puerto Rico meet in a must see performance. Mauricio Diaz El Hueso from Mexico and Fernandito Ferrer from Puerto Rico.

For the first time together in the Bay Area. Singer-songwriter from Puebla, Mexico, Mauricio Diaz creates engaging dialogues between his fiery guitar playing and off-kilter, rhythmically jagged singing. http://www.myspace.com/huesomx

Fernandito Ferrer has been a young pioneer among the new breed of singer-songwriters in Puerto Rico. He first appeared on stage in 1997 and has since made himself known throughout the island, the Caribbean, the US and Mexico.  http://www.myspace.com/fernanditoferrer  

Meeting Favianna Rodriguez

by Efrén Paredes, Jr.

"The voice of the individual artist may seem perhaps of no more consequence
than the whirring of a cricket in the grass, but the arts do live continuously ...
they outlive governments and creeds and societies, even the very civilizations
that produced them." (Author Unknown)

Monday, April 7, 2008, I met Favianna Rodriguez, internationally renowned muralist, graphic artist, printmaker, and political activist.  Favianna attended our Latin American Spanish-Speaking Organization (LASSO) monthly general membership meeting as a guest speaker.

As an activist, Favianna was one of the founders of the EastSide Arts Alliance, an organization that supports Oakland neighborhoods through art programs.  She has also helped to make available performance, studio space, and affordable housing units.  She is a co-owner of TUMIS, an East Oakland-based design firm that provides design, technology, and communication strategy services for social justice and nonprofit organizations.

Favianna oversees Visual Element, a graffiti arts program that trains young artists in the traditions of muralism and graffiti for social change.  She coordinates recruitment, instruction, and retention of young graffiti artists of color, ages 17-20.  She has developed a street-based arts curriculum and fund raises over $75,000 annually from city grants, foundations, & private mural commissions.

While in Michigan, Favianna was doing a residency with Michigan State University Department of Arts and Humanities.  She met our Latin American Spanish-Speaking Organization (LASSO) sponsor who invited Favianna to attend our monthly LASSO meeting and present about the activism and social justice work she does through art and printmaking.

Before Favianna presented, I spoke to the group about the importance of art, particularly as it relates to the struggle for social justice.  I told those in attendance that art is a powerful expression of who we are and our views of the world.  It is a culmination of experience, history, and culture - it is a vivid expression of life itself.

Through art we convey our vision, dreams and hope.  We preserve the memory of our people for generations to follow.  We are also able to shape the consciousness of the global community.  Each piece of art is a tentacle with boundless measure.

As Suzanne Lacy, Executive Director at Museum Without Walls, puts it, "Artists as reporters represent their world.  Artists as experiencers  give tangible form to their feelings about the world.  Artists as analysts look beyond the immediate to reveal hidden universal truths.  And artists as activists help us see the world in new ways."

During her presentation Favianna covered a broad range of issues.  I couldn't help but quickly recognize that she is totally committed to social justice and the elimination of every form of discrimination.  It was also clear that she is passionate about the causes she supports and is unapologetic about her positions.  Favianna says her work "reflects a growing national consciousness that speaks to the contemporary urban barrios, rebelling against racism, homophobia, sexism and corporate irresponsibility."

During her presentation Favianna shared several colored copies of artwork she has done.  Everyone in attendance received a copy.  She also shared art she is making available for free to be used for noncommercial activist purposes.  They will be available online and in a new book Favianna co-edited titled "Reproduce & Revolt: Radical Images for the 21st Century."

She told us the story behind each piece of artwork she graciously shared with us, and explained the various processes she uses to create them.  Her presentation was very interesting and captivated those who were in attendance.  What began with Favianna saying, "I'm going to tell you a little about myself," concluded as a 45-minute political art discourse.

The range of topics that Favianna included in her presentation was vast.  Sometimes it included subjects about femicide, day laborers, and genetically engineered food, other times she talked about politics, the Olympic Games protests, and upcoming events she would be a part of.

Favianna spoke to us on the day that members of The Ruckus Society climbed the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco to support Tibetan independence. Members of Ruckus hung two large banners that read, "One World, One Dream: Free Tibet."  San Francisco is the only city hosting the Olympic torch in the United States.  Favianna is friends with members of Ruckus and has collaborated with them on projects in the past.

Listening to Favianna speak about the social activism she does was a great experience.  I felt proud to be in the company of a person truly motivated to do all she can for the advancement of people worldwide.  She is acutely aware of the many facets to social activism and the need to maintain an all-encompassing approach to avert any possible exclusion.

Favianna recently wrote in her blog how proud she was to see the unity between Black and Brown prisoners who were in attendance at LASSO the evening she presented.  What she didn't know is that not only is there a strong unity of Black of Brown prisoners in the group, there are also White prisoners who regularly attend the meetings and help foster the cohesion that is created.

This is one of the things about LASSO that I have worked so hard to accomplish as the group's president.  Having a vast background in social movements, Black history, and Chicano/Latino history, has equipped me with the necessary tools to help develop mutual respect and harmony between every race of people who attends LASSO.

Few people have been able to accomplish this because they lacked the knowledge about various cultures, history, and religions to create a human tapestry that is all inclusive.  One must understand the commonalities that people share before they can truly bring them together and create harmonious relationships.

My ability to do this is a much needed skill that can be utilized in society as well.  The model that I have created in prison to unify people and teach them how to respect one another and work together will significantly benefit the global community when I am one day released.

It was great hearing Favianna talk about various people she has worked with in Black and Brown communities.  I was able to relate to everything she said because vicariously I have shared her experiences.  I have always maintained an all-inclusive mentality when teaching people because I recognize the value that this has over employing a narrow approach.

Teaching about various cultures and history helps us better understand each other and appreciate the struggles we share.  It helps us realize more and more how similar we are and, rather than be afraid of each other due to our ignorance, we grow closer as a unified body.  Segregation breeds evils and is destructive to the human spirit.

I was also grateful that Favianna shared her thoughts with us about gender and women's liberation.  They are issues eschewed by many males but need to be discussed.  I have always been a strong proponent of the need for women to express themselves and compel others to respect their status in the world.

The mentality that relegates women as second-class citizens or tries to make their roles as footnotes in history is nothing short of disrespectful and oppressive.  Having a strong accomplished Latina speak about her strengths and the need to respect and appreciate women in front of a room full of men, particularly in a prison, took courage.

During a conversation with Favianna I learned that she knew one of my supporters and a person I admire, Dr. Elizabeth "Betita" Martinez.  Favianna worked closely with Betita for several years on the book "500 Years of Chicana Women's History/Anos de Historia de las Chicanas."

According to Rutgers University Press, "500 Years of Chicana Women's History offers a powerful antidote to this omission with a vivid, pictorial account of struggle and survival, resilience and achievement, discrimination and identity.  The bilingual text, along with hundreds of photos and other images, ranges from female-centered stories of pre-Columbian Mexico to profiles of contemporary social justice activists, labor leaders, youth organizers, artists, and environmentalists, among others."

Betita is a prominent and highly respected figure in the Chicano/Latino community.  She has a long history as a leader in the struggle for social justice.  I was able to learn about her experience working with Favianna on the book and about how their historical project materialized.

I made a donation to the Immigrant Rights Poster Project that Favianna is spearheading.  An immigrant rights conference is being held May 12-17 in Mexico City.  The event is being convened by TIGRA (Transnational Institute for Grassroots Research and Action), SEDEREC (Ministry of Rural Development and Community Equity for the City of Mexico), and CENCOS (National Center for Social Communication).

The event will bring together more than 300 migrant leaders from the USA, Latin America, Africa, Asia, and Europe.  Favianna is collaborating with other artists to create five posters and then will have 5,000 posters printed of each design to be distributed free of charge to groups supporting immigrant rights all over the world.  I chose to use some of the money I received for my birthday to help with this project.

Now when the conference is held I can truly say I helped make it a success.  And, whenever I am eventually released, I can begin attending global immigrant rights conferences - and other social justice conferences - as well and be an active participant.  It's just one of the many things I look forward to doing one day.

It was honor having Favianna visit us and be the first group of prisoners she ever presented to inside a prison.  We were privileged to have her as our guest and show her that the misconceptions and generalizations often made about prisoners aren't always true.  We represented the full inversion of the lies presented in the media.

Who knows, maybe Favianna will even do an art project to memorialize the event one day.

To learn more about Favianna Rodriguez and her amazing work you are invited to visit her web site at www.favianna.com.  While you're at it please read her writing, "Please Help Fund This Immigrant Rights Poster Project," and make a contribution if you are able to.Å°


Sent by Carlos Muñoz, Jr.  
Professor Emeritus,Department of Ethnic Studies  
510-642-9134 http://ethnicstudies.berkeley.edu/faculty/munoz/

Jose Simon, Musician Dies

LaRC Latino among nominee for 2007 NASA, 
Commercial Invention of the Year Award

Fueling the Beast by Henry Godines

Latinos/Latinas - Ultimate sacrifice, Part IV 
Capt. Kathlene Contres, US Navy’s highest ranking female Hispanic
Astronaut Joseph Acaba
Hispanic Military Heroes with non-Hispanic surnames

Brig.General Robert Cardenas USAF ret.

" Brig.General Robert Cardenas USAF ret. is an amazing individual who still lives in San Diego. He was in charge of the X-1 project as a Major. The X-1 is the manned rocket plane that broke the sound barrier for the first time. The legendary Big. General Chuck Yeager was the pilot. That event took place in 1947 at what is now Edwards Air Force base California. I even did a painting and made prints of a scene prior to that historic event (see attachment) Robert Cardenas is shown at extreme left then it's Chuck Yeager and Jack Ridley." 

Henry Godines, artist 
henryg@translogicinc.com
For more of Henry's art, go to http://home.earthlink.net/~hgodines/
He has done oils of planes in flight, ships at sea. 

Below is an introduction to a fascinating website dedicated to Brig.General Cardenas.  Do check it out.  You can click to a marvelous collection of photos and read about Brig. General Cardenas military career and the history of US flight testing . 

Cardenas was sent to Kelly Field, Texas to become a flight instructor, then onto Twentynine Palms, California to establish the U.S. Army Airforces glider training school and followed this by becoming a Flight Test Officer and then Director of Flight Test Unit, Experimental Engineering Laboratory, Wright Field Ohio.

Cardenas next assignment was to the 44th Bomb Group (known as the flying 8-balls) and arrived in England on January 4th, 1944. Based at Shipdam, Norfolk, Cardenas flew his first mission on January 21st in B-24H “Southern Comfort”. On March 18th, 1944 (on his twentieth mission) whilst flying as command pilot aboard B-24J “Sack Artists” the aircraft in which Cardenas was flying was badly damaged by anti-aircraft fire and enemy fighters. The target was the Manzell Air Armaments plant at Freidrichshafen, Germany. The right wing of the aircraft had been badly damaged after a shell had gone through setting both the right engines ablaze. Cardenas had been injured when a piece of flak pierced his helmet causing a head wound, yet still Cardenas pressed home the attack. The pilot, Lt. Lacombe turned and headed for Switzerland as it was clear to Cardenas and the crew of the B-24 that they would not make it back to base, and would have to bail out. After bail out, the aircraft exploded and the remains crashed into Fehraltdorf, Switzerland. Cardenas landed on the shore of Lake Constance (on the German side) and swam to the Swiss shore of the lakeside. After contacting the local resistance, Cardenas made his way into France prior to D-day and the French Resistance arranged for Cardenas to get back to England.

Upon his return to the United States, Cardenas was assigned to the Flight Test Division at Wright Field and became a test pilot after graduating from the Flight Performance School. Cardenas flew the Messerchmitt ME-262 and the Arado 234 bomber to test,evaluate and gather data on the captured German jets and tested the Douglas XB-42 Mixmaster and the jet powered version, the XB-43. Major Cardenas was assigned as the chief test pilot of the bomber division and would fly all the new prototypes over the next four years.

www.members.tripod.com/derekhorne/cardenas.html  

  
                                     
    
   Born July 13, 1955

Captain Kathlene Contres 

United States Navy’s highest ranking female Hispanic.

First Hispanic woman Commandant 
of the Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute

Mimi,  It is with great pleasure that I introduce to our readers Captain Kathlene Contres. Capt. Contres is the United States Navy’s highest ranking female Hispanic Line Officer on active duty. The term line officer (or "officer of the line") is used in the United States Navy, Coast Guard and Marine Corps to describe a military officer who is trained to command a warship, ground combat unit or combat aviation unit. Capt. Contres is also the President of the Association of Naval Services Officers (ANSO). It was Capt. Contres who named me the Official Military Historian of ANSO upon the recommendation of Rear Admiral Jay DeLoach.   Tony Santiago  

EARLY YEARS (Wikipedia)

Contres grew up in Spangler, Pennsylvania where she received her primary and secondary education. Her grandfather Jesus Contreras, was a Mexican national who immigrated to the United States as a teenager. After migrating, he worked on the railroads, coal mines, and a paper mill. He eventually settled in York, Pennsylvania and shortened his name to Jess Contres. She was born to Mr. and Mrs. John Contres who had six children, two daughters and four sons. Contres, at a young age, decided that she wanted to become a teacher. Upon her graduation from Ebensburg's Bishop Carroll High School in 1973, she enrolled in Slippery Rock University in Pennsylvania and in 1977 she earned her Bachelor of Science Degree in Health Education with an emphasis in Sports Medicine.^[1] Contres returned to her high school alma mater as a substitute teacher. She was teaching high school during the day and coaching the girl's basketball team during the evenings, as well as Athletic Trianing during other sports seasons. On one occasion she visited a friend at a United States Marine Corps base and was impressed with the institution's discipline. In 1980, she spoke to a Navy recruiter and became aware of the educational and travel opportunities which the Navy offered. Contres decided to enlist for four years of military service.^[2]

For information on Capt. Contres military career, please go to: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathlene_Contres

Joseph Acaba

PERSONAL DATA: Born in 1967 in Inglewood, California and raised in Anaheim, California where his parents Ralph and Elsie still reside. Enjoys outdoor activities such as camping, hiking, mountain biking, kayaking, and scuba diving. Also enjoys reading, especially science fiction.

EDUCATION: Esperanza High School, Anaheim, California, 1985
B.S., Geology, University of California-Santa Barbara, 1990
M.S., Geology, University of Arizona, 1992

ORGANIZATIONS: International Technology Education Association and Florida Association of Science Teachers.

EXPERIENCE: United States Marine Corps, Reserves. Worked as a hydro-geologist in Los Angeles, California. Primarily worked on Superfund sites and was involved the assessment and remediation of groundwater contaminants. Spent 2 years in the United States Peace Corps as an Environmental Education Awareness Promoter in the Dominican Republic. Served as the Island Manager of the Caribbean Marine Research Center at Lee Stocking Island in the Exumas, Bahamas. Shoreline Revegetation Coordinator in Vero Beach, Florida, planning, designing, and implementing a mangrove revegetation project. One year of high school experience at Melbourne High School, Florida and four years of middle school experience as a math and science teacher at Dunnellon Middle School, Florida.

NASA EXPERIENCE: Selected as a Mission Specialist by NASA in May 2004. In February 2006 he completed Astronaut Candidate Training that included scientific and technical briefings, intensive instruction in Shuttle and International Space Station systems, physiological training, T-38 flight training, and water and wilderness survival training. Upon completion of his training, Acaba was assigned to the Hardware Integration Team in the Space Station Branch working technical issues with European Space Agency ( ESA) hardware. Currently he is assigned as a mission specialist on the STS-119 mission, targeted for launch in the winter of 2008. The flight will deliver the final pair of power-generating solar array wings and truss element to the International Space Station.

      Hispanic Military Heroes

                  with non-Hispanic surnames

                    By: Tony (The Marine) Santiago  

One of the discoveries which I have made during my years of research is the fact that many of our heroes were Hispanics with non-Hispanic surnames. There are various historical factors which may have contributed to this phenomenal . Therefore, I will indulge into some of the historical events which occurred in the past and which can give us an idea as to why there are many Hispanics with non-Hispanic surnames.  

 Wild Geese

                                       Field Marshal Alejandro O'Reilly

                                 “The Father of the Puerto Rican Militia”

During the 16^th Century the Irish, who were mostly Catholic, were suffering many injustices from the English authorities who were Protestant. William Stanley, an English Catholic was given a commission by Queen Elizabeth I to organize an Irish regiment of  native Irish soldiers and mercenaries. The main idea was to get rid of these men because the English authorities wanted them out of the country. They were sent to fight on behave of England in support of the Dutch United Provinces. However, in 1585, motivated by religious factors and bribes offered by the Spaniards, Stanley defected to the Spanish side with the regiment. The Irishmen who fled the English Army to join the armies of other foreign nations became known as “Wild Geese“.  One of these men was Alejandro O’Reilly, an Inspector-General of Infantry for the Spanish Empire who as a military reformer became known as “The Father of the Puerto Rican Militia” and who later became known as “Bloody O’Reilly” during his governorship of Spanish colonial Louisiana. Another was Ambrosio O'Higgins, Marquis of Osorno, a Spanish officer born in County Sligo in Ireland, who became governor of Chile and whose son was Bernado O'Higgins, the South American independence leader born in Chile.

These men did not return to Ireland, instead they married and raised their families in Spain and her colonies.  This is only one of the reasons that we have Hispanics with Irish surnames.

The Royal Decree of Graces of 1815

                              The Spanish Royal Decree of Graces of 1815  

The Spanish Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 is a legal order approved by the Spanish Crown in the early half of the 19^th Century to encourage Spaniards and later Europeans of non-Spanish origin to settle and populate the colonies of Puerto Rico and Cuba.  

In the 19th Century the Spanish Empire had lost all of its territories in the Americas with the exception of Cuba and Puerto Rico.  These two possessions, however, were demanding more autonomy and had pro-independence movements.  Realizing that it was in danger of losing its two remaining territories, the Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815.  This time the decree was printed in three languages Spanish, English and French with the intention of attracting Europeans of non-Spanish origin, with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity and strength with the arrival of new settlers.  Free land was offered to those who wanted to populate the islands with the condition that they swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church.  

These conditions led to a massive European immigration to the Americas.  Hundreds of Corsicans, Italians, French, Irish and Germans, attracted by the offers of free land by the Spanish Crown, moved to the colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico and accepted the conditions stated.  As soon as these settlers swore their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and their allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church, they were given a "Letter of Domicile".  After five years, the settlers were granted a "Letter of Naturalization" that made them Spanish subjects.  In an effort to attract non-Catholic Europeans, the Spanish Courts passed a law in 1870, granting the right of religious freedom to all those who wished to worship another religion other than the Catholic. The new settlers eventually intermarried with the natives and hence we have Hispanics with French, German, Corsican, Italian and Irish surnames from the Caribbean region.  

United States Expansion

There are many Anglo Americans who have intermarried with Hispanics while serving in the Armed Forces of the United States. Let’s take a look at some of the military conflicts in which the United States has been involved with the intention of expanding it’s territory and military strength. First of all a series of U.S. military incursions into Florida led Spain to cede it and other Gulf Coast territory in 1819. The country annexed the Republic of Texas in 1845. The U.S. victory in the Mexican-American War resulted in the 1848 cession of California and much of the present-day American Southwest. Victory in the Spanish-American War in 1898 demonstrated that the United States was a major world power and resulted in the annexation of Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines.  From 1903 to 1979 the Panama Canal Zone territory was controlled by the United States, which had built and financed the canal's construction. The United States military interventions during the 1930’s into Central and South America in the so called '''Banana Wars'''  (an unofficial term). Most of what is now our country belonged to Spain and/ or  Mexico. It was not uncommon that the new settlers, mostly male, would intermarry with Hispanic women  in the new territories. In some cases Anglo soldiers would marry the native women of the countries where they were stationed, such as Puerto Rico and the Panama Canal Zone.    

There are also many Hispanics in the United States who have intermarried with non-Hispanics. We are all familiar with the prejudice and discrimination which Hispanics have been subject to in our nation. During the 1940’s there were signs in restaurants which stated “We do not serve Mexicans” and in the East Coast “No Dogs nor Puerto Ricans Allowed”. We know about the lynching of African-Americans, but little is mentioned that the same thing happened to Mexican-Americans. In Arizona, Mexicans were not allowed the use of public swimming pools except on Thursdays because they were cleaned on Fridays.  Hispanics have always been  stereotyped as lazy people by the non-Hispanic population. Therefore, it should be to no surprise that Hispanics with non-Hispanic surnames would rather hide their Hispanic heritage or in some cases those who had Hispanic surnames change them into non-Hispanic sounding names in order to get ahead.  

Hollywood is a perfect example of what I am talking about. Do you know who Raquel Tejada,  Margarita Carmen Cansino and Ramón Gerardo Antonio Estevez  are? How about if I told you that they are  Raquel Welch, Rita Hayworth and Martin Sheen in that order? Now, there were some who despite the fact that they changed or “Americanized” their names, were always cast in stereotyped roles because of their physical features. Among them we have   Enrique Tomas Delgado, Jr. = Henry Darrow - Manolito in The High Chaparral and Antonio Rodolfo Quinn Oaxaca = Anthony Quinn who despite the fact that he used his “Irish” surname was mostly cast as a Native American. This was also true in sports. Victor Pellot became Vic Power. The sports establishment tried to do the same to Roberto Clemente. They wanted him to change his name to “Bob Walker” but, he was proud of his heritage and did not permit it.  

The same goes for the military. Many of our heroes with non-Hispanic surnames were told that if they wanted to get ahead in the military, they should hide their Hispanic heritage.  David Bennes Barkley, our only recipient of the Medal of Honor in World War I , enlisted in the Army using his Anglo father's surname in order to avoid being segregated into a non-combat unit. In my conversations with a Hispanic Rear Admiral,  I was told that his father encouraged him to hide his Hispanic heritage. The Hispanic Rear Admiral in question, however is proud of his Hispanic heritage and embraces it. We have five Medal of Honor recipients with non-Hispanic surnames, they are: David B. Barkley, Lucian Adams, Miguel Keith, Elmelindo Rodriques Smith and Humbert Roque Versace.  Here I will present you with some Hispanic heroes with non-Hispanic surnames, whose heritage may have gone unknown if not for some serious research.

    Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl

                   By: Tony (The Marine) Santiago  
   

                                Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl  

Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl (February 27, 1889–September 1969), a native of Maunabo, Puerto Rico, was an officer in the United States Navy and the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the United States Naval Academy to be awarded the Navy Cross. The Navy Cross is the second highest medal, after the Medal of Honor, that can be awarded by the U.S. Navy for heroism or distinguished service. He was a World War I Navy Cross recipient who served as Captain of the USS Vicennes during World War II.  

                                          Early years  

Born and raised in the town of Maunabo, Riefkohl was the son of Luis Riefkohl and Julia Jaimieson. His older brother was Rudolph Riefkohl, a Colonel in the United States Army Corps of Engineers, who was the first Puerto Rican to receive a "tombstone promotion" of Brigadier General after his death, which  technically made him the first Hispanic brigadier general in the United States Army. After he graduated from high school, Riefkohl received an appointment on July 5, 1907, from Beekman Winthrop, the U.S. appointed governor of Puerto Rico from 1904 to 1907, to attend the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland In 1911, he became the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the Academy.  

During World War I, Lieutenant Riefkohl served as Commander of the Armed Guard of the USS Philadelphia and on August 2, 1917 he was awarded the Navy Cross for engaging an enemy submarine. The Navy Cross is the second highest medal that can be awarded by the U.S. Navy and are awarded to members of the U.S. Navy or U.S. Marine Corps for heroism or distinguished service.    

                                 Navy Cross citation

                              Riefkohl, Frederick L.

                                         Lieutenant, U.S. Navy 
                                Armed Guard, U.S.S. Philadelphia 
|                                    Date of Action: August 2, 1917

                                                   Citation:  

“The Navy Cross is awarded to Lieutenant Frederick L. Riefkohl, U.S. Navy, for distinguished service in the line of his profession as Commander of the Armed Guard of the U.S.S. Philadelphia, and in an engagement with an enemy submarine. On August 2, 1917, a periscope was sighted, and then a torpedo passed under the stern of the ship. A shot was fired, which struck close to the submarine, which then disappeared.”    

                                     World War II

Upon the outbreak of World War II, Riefkohl, who was the Captain of the USS Vincennes, was assigned to the Fire Support Group, LOVE (with Transport Group XRAY) under the command of Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turner's Task Force TARE (Amphibious Force) during the landing in the Solomon Islands on August 7, 1942.

                                           USS Vincennes  

On August 9, 1942, the Northern Force which consisted of the USS Vincennes, USS Quincy and the USS Astoria, found themselves just off Guadalcanal. Riefkohl commanded this force. Rear Admiral Victor A. Crutchley, the commander of the Northern Force left with his flagship HMAS Australia to meet with the top brass without notifying Riefkohl.  

Japanese Admiral Mikawa and his navy decided to make a surprise attack on the American ships. He first destroyed an Australian cruiser, then the USS Chicago before going after the USS Vincennes. Riefkohl was summoned up to the bridge and believed that a minor skirmish was taking place with some ship. When the Japanese ships turned on their searchlights, Riefkohl mistook them for the American ships from the Southern Force and asked them over the radio to turn off their lights because enemy vessels might be near. The Japanese answered the message with a fusillade of shells and torpedoes.  

Riefkohl ordered a starboard turn, but torpedoes hit and exploded, destroying both engine rooms. The USS Vincennes fired back and may have hit the Kinugasa, a Japanese cruiser. The Vincennes received 85 direct hits and Riefkohl ordered his men to abandon ship. The sailors manned the life rafts and the Vincennes rolled over and went down with 342 men still aboard. Riefkohl was presented a Purple Heart Medal for the wounds which he received.  

Rear Admiral Riefkohl wrote in an epitaph: "The magnificent Vincennes, which we were all so proud of, and which I had the honor to command since April 23, 1941, rolled over and then sank at about 0250, August 9, 1942, about 2½ miles [5 km] east of Savo Island . . .[sic] Solomons Group, in some 500 fathoms [900 m] of water."  

Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl died in Brevard County, Florida in 1969 and was buried with full military honors in the United States Naval Academy Cemetery of Columbarium. He was married to Louisa Gibson Riefkohl (1902–1974) and didn't have any offspring.

Awards and recognitions  

Among Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl's decorations and medals were the following:  
Navy Cross,  
Navy Distinguished Service Medal,  
Purple Heart Medal,  
World War I Victory Medal,  
American Defense Service Medal,  
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal,  
World War II Victory Medal  

                 Colonel Virgil R. Miller

                                 By: Tony (The Marine) Santiago

                                            Colonel Virgil R. Miller

Colonel Virgil Rasmuss Miller (November 11, 1900-August 5, 1968), was a United States Army officer who served as Regimental Commander of the 442d Regimental Combat Team, a unit which was composed of "Nisei" (second generation Americans of Japanese descent), during World War II. He led the 442nd in its rescue of the Lost Texas Battalion of the 36th Infantry Division, in the forests of the Vosges Mountains in northeastern France.

                                              Early years  

Miller was born in San German, Puerto Rico, which is located on the western coast of the island.  In 1915, his family moved to San Juan the Capitol of the island when his father Dr. Paul Gerard Miller, was appointed Commissioner of Education, position which the senior Miller held until 1921.  Miller and his siblings received their secondary education at El Caribe High School in San Juan. During World War I, he served in the Puerto Rico Home Guard, a local militia. In 1920, he received an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point from Arthur Yager (1858 – 1941), who served as Governor of Puerto Rico from 1913 to 1921.  
 

                                         Military career  

Miller graduated from the U.S. Military Academy and was commissioned a Second Lieutenant in the infantry in 1924. He married Ann McGoughran the following year and in 1926 returned to Puerto Rico where he served with Puerto Rico's 65th Infantry Regiment. In 1940, he was transferred to Hawaii, where he served with 21st Infantry Brigade and 24th Infantry Division stationed on the island of O’ahu at Schofield Barracks.  
 

                                       World War II  

                                  Col. Vigil R. Miller (Bottom Row, third from L to R)

                                              in 1945 442nd Regimental Staff Photo  

On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor and the United States entered the war. In June 1943, Miller was named Executive Officer of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team. The team included the 442d Infantry Regiment, the 522d Field Artillery Battalion, the 232d Combat Engineer Company, the 206th Army Ground Forces Band and the 100th Infantry Battalion from Hawaii's National Guard. The unit was mostly composed of Nisei, second generation Americans of Japanese ancestry who were drafted into service. Some of these men had family members who were still interned in Japanese American internment camps.

Among the campaigns in which Miller participated as either Executive Officer or Regimental Commander of the 442nd RCT were the Rome-Amo, North Apenines and Po Valley Campaigns.

 
The Battle of Bruyeres (Rescue of the Lost Battalion)

On October 1944, the 1st Battalion, 141st Infantry of the 36th Division, made a push down a long heavily-wooded ridge that extended southeast and dominated the valley of Bruyeres, France from Biffontaine to La Houssiere. The 1st had overextended itself behind enemy lines and had been cut off by strong enemy forces. The 442nd under the leadership of Lieutenant Colonel Miller was ordered into the line of combat in an effort to relieve pressure on the 1st Battalion.  

On October 26, the 442nd launched its attack and at times had to engage in hand to hand combat at a terrible cost of men and material. The 442nd Combat Team was badly battered and without reinforcements, however they were committed to their mission of reaching the 1st Battalion, 141st Infantry of the 36th Division which became known as the "Lost Battalion". Finally, on October 30, after five days of combat, the Combat Team made contact and rescued the men of the "Lost Battalion". The 442nd, according to its commander, Lt. Col. Miller, had lost approximately three times more men (over 800 casualties) than the 211 that were eventually saved. Because of intense German attacks, there was little time to celebrate the rescue together. The 442nd were ordered to pursue the Germans and the "Lost Battalion" men were given a hot meal and put on the lines again. 442nd Regimental Commander Colonel Charles W. Pence, was replaced by Lt. Col. Miller who was promoted to Colonel. In January 5, 1945, Miller was named Commanding Officer of Puerto Rico's 65th Infantry Regiment but, he declined the assignment on January 17, on account that he preferred to continue with the 442nd Combat Team.  

                                The Po Valley Campaign

In April 1945, the 442nd RCT came to the aid of the 92nd Infantry Division and spearheaded a diversionary assault on the western sector of the Gothic Line on the Peninsula Base Section Staging Area at Pisa, Italy.  

Field Marshall Albert Kesselring had directed the construction of fortifications, drilled out of solid rock and reinforced with concrete, in the rugged mountains of the Apennines. The German stronghold, contained machine gun nests which produced deadly interlocking fire upon the Allied forces. On April 5, 1945, Col Miller, and 3rd Battalion Commander, Lt Col Alfred A. Pursall planned a pincers attack at dawn with the surprise element of an all-night climb of a 3,000 foot mountain face in the dark with full fighting gear, to get in position for an assault.  

At the dawn of April 6, Millers men proceeded on their advance, however the explosions of landmines alerted the Germans and a fierce battle followed. The Gothic Line was cracked after a full day of fighting and by the end of the day the last ridge link, Mount Cerreta, finally fell. Miller then led the 442nd in the capture of Mt. Fologorito, Massa, a German Naval Base at La Spezia (where they captured a submarine) and Turin.  

Col. Miller relinquished his command of the 442nd on June 1945. Among the many decorations which Miller's 442nd Regimental Combat Team and its members earned were: 21 Medals of Honor, 52 Distinguished Service Crosses (including 19 Distinguished Service Crosses which were upgraded to Medals of Honor in June 2000),1 Distinguished Service Medal, 560 Silver Stars (plus 28 Oak Leaf Clusters for a second award) and 7 Presidential Unit Citations (5 earned in one month). Thus, the 422nd is the most decorated unit in U.S. military history.  

At a memorial service held on May 6, 1945 for the men of the 442nd RCT, Col. Miller was quoted as saying:  

"The sacrifice made by our comrades was great. We must not fail them in the fight that continues, in the fight that will be with us even when peace comes. Your task will be the harder and more arduous one, for it will extend over a longer time."  

                                           Later years  

Miller served in Italy until 1947 and served as an Infantry advisor in Turkey. He was a Professor of Military Science and Tactics at Pennsylvania State College, Lehigh University and the University of Michigan. Miller retired form the military in 1954 and as a civilian became a Research Associate at MIT, position which he held until his retirement in 1963.  

Col. Virgil R. Miller died on August 5, 1968 at Ann Arbor, Michigan. He was buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery. The Honor Guard carried the 422nd Regimental Colors which was sent by 442nd Regiment from Schofield Barracks, Hawaii with the assistance of Senator Daniel K. Inouye. He was survived by his widow Ann, two sons William and Richard and his daughter Julia.  

Awards and decorations:  

Among Col. Millers military awards and decorations are the following:  
Silver Star Medal  
Legion of Merit  
Bronze Star Medal w/oak leaf cluster  
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal w/ one battle star  
European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal w/ battle stars  
American Campaign Medal  
World War II Victory Medal  
National Defense Service Medal  
Presidential Unit Citation  
French Croix de Guerre w/Gold Star (France)  
Croce al Mertito di Guerra (Italy)

Badges: Combat Infantryman Badge  

   Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen, Sr.

                                 By: Tony (The Marine) Santiago

                               Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen, Sr.  

Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen, Sr. (April 1, 1888 - September 12, 1969) was a United States Army officer who was featured on the cover of Time magazine during World War II. He was a World War I veteran who during World War II was the commanding general of the First Infantry Division in North Africa and Sicily, and later the commander of the 104th Infantry Division.  

                                       Early years  

Allen was born in Fort Douglas, Utah to Col. Samuel Allen and Consuelo "Conchita" Alvarez de la Mesa. Allen's family had a long line of military tradition. Besides his father, Allen's maternal grandfather was Colonel Carlos de la Mesa, a Spanish national who fought at Gettysburg for the Union Army in the Spanish Company of the "Garibaldi Guard" of the 39th New York State Volunteers, during the American Civil War. Allen grew up in various military bases because of his father's military career and in 1907, received an appointment to the United States Military Academy (West Point) in New York.  

                                   Military career 

There were certain factors which affected Allen's performance at West Point and which would led up to his eventual dismissal from said military institution. One of them was that he began to stutter and soon fell behind in his classes. Another was that he was held back a grade in his second year because he failed mathematics. Finally, he failed an ordnance and gunnery course.   

Allen enrolled and attended the Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C. and earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1912. He joined the Army once more and after passing the competitive Army officers exam, was commissioned a Second Lieutenant and assigned to Fort Meyer in Virginia. In 1913, he was reassigned to the 14th Cavalry at Eagle Pass, Texas and served there until 1917. During this time he pursued and captured ammunition smugglers and served on border duty. He was promoted twice, the first on July 1, 1916, to First Lieutenant and the second on May 15, 1917 when he was promoted to Captain.  

World War I  

On June 7, 1918, a year and two months after the United States declared war against Germany and entered the World War I, Allen was sent to France and assigned to the 315th Ammunition Train. Allen showed up at a school for infantry officers the day before a class graduation. When the commandant of the school began to hand out certificates to the graduates, Allen lined up with them. When confronted with him the commandant said "I don't remember you in this class." "I'm Allen-why don't you?" was the reply. Without further due, Allen was given  the certificate and became a temporary Major.  

Allen was assigned to the 3rd Battalion, 358th Infantry Regiment, 90th Division which he led into battle at St. Mihiel and Aincreville. During one battle Allen received a bullet through his jaw and mouth and as a result of the wound never stuttered again. He was awarded a Silver Star and a Purple Heart Medal for his actions. Allen remained with the American Expeditionary Forces in France until the Armistice with Germany . He then served with the Army of Occupation in Germany until 1920 when he returned to the United States.  

Pre World War II  

After Allen returned to the United States, his temporary rank of Major was reverted to Captain until July 1, 1920 when he was fully promoted to Major. He served in Camp Travis and later in Fort McIntosh, both located in Texas. In 1922, Allen was assigned to the 61st Cavalry Division, at New York City.  

He continued to take military related courses, among them: an advanced course in Cavalry School, Fort Riley, Kansas; a two year program at Fort Leavenworth's Command & General Staff School;  a course in the Infantry School at Fort Benning and an interim course in infantry command with other divisions. In 1928, he married Mary Frances Robinson of El Paso, Texas with whom in 1929 he had a son, Terry de la Mesa Allen, Jr. On August 1, 1935, Allen was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and became an instructor at the Cavalry School at Fort Riley in Kansas. He wrote and published ''"Reconnaissance by horse cavalry regiments and smaller units"'' in 1939. On October 1, 1940, General George Marshall promoted him to Brigadier General (without ever holding the rank of Colonel) and in 1942, he was promoted to Major General and given command of the 1st Infantry Division.  

World War II

                                          MG Allen addressing his troops  

In 1942, the 1st Infantry Division was sent to Britain where they underwent further combat training, which included training in amphibious warfare. The division participated in the invasion of North Africa under the command of General George S. Patton. The division landed in Oran, Algeria on November 8, 1942, as part of Operation Torch. Elements of the division then took part in combat at Maktar, Medjez el Bab, Kasserine Pass, Gafsa, El Guettar, Béja, and Mateur, from January 21, 1943  to May 9, 1943, helping secure Tunisia. In July, 1943, the division supported other units in the invasion of Sicily and took part in Operation Husky.  

Allen and his second in command Brigadier General Theodore Roosevelt Jr. (son of former U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt) distinguished themselves as combat leaders. However, General Patton was critical of both Allen and Roosevelt and asked General Dwight D. Eisenhower permission to relieve both Allen and Roosevelt of their commands on the theory of rotation of command. On  August 7, 1943, Allen was relieved of his command by Major General Clarence R. Huebner and on August 9, 1943 he was featured on the cover of Time Magazine.     

Allen was reassigned to command the 104th Infantry Division, known as '''Timberwolf Division'''. Some 34,000 men served with the division under Allen's command and fought for 195 consecutive days after landing in France on September 7, 1944. The division's first action came in October of 1944 during the taking of Achtmaal and Zundert in Holland.  It then participated in the Battle of the Bulge, advanced through the Siegfried line and across the Inde River into Cologne, and it helped complete the encirclement of the Ruhr pocket.  Finally, it made a 350-mile sweep to the Mulde River in the heart of Germany. The division which became renowned for its night fighting prowess, was deactivated in June 1946 upon its return to the United States at the end of the war.  

                                      Later years

Allen retired from the Army on  August 31, 1946. For a number of years he served as a representative for various insurance companies in El Paso and was active in civic affairs and in veteran organizations. In 1967, Allen's son, Lieutenant Colonel Terry de la Mesa Allen, Jr., was killed in the Vietnam War. Allen, Jr., served with the 1st Infantry Division, which his father had commanded in World War II. Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen, Sr., died of natural causes on  September 12, 1969, in El Paso, Texas, at the age of 81. He was buried, alongside his son, in the Fort Bliss National Cemetery with full military honors. The United States Military Academy presents the "General Terry de la Mesa Allen Award" to the student with the highest rating in Military Science.  

Military awards and recognitions

Among Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen, Sr.'s military awards and recognitions are the following:  
Silver Star Medal 
Legion of Merit
Distinguished Service Medal with Oak Leaf Cluster 
Purple Heart Medal with Oak Leaf Cluster. 
Mexican Border Service Medal 
American Defense Service Medal
American Campaign Medal
European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal
World War I Victory Medal
World War II Victory Medal 
Army of Occupation Medal

Foreign Decorations  

Honorable Order of the Bath - United Kingdom
French Croix de Guerre with Palm medals - France
St. Mihiel Medal- France
Order of Suvorov  Class II (Gold) - USSR

Further reading  

*"Terrible Terry Allen: Combat General of World War II - The Life of an American Soldier" by Gerald Astor; Publisher: Presidio Press; 1 edition (April 1 2003); ISBN-10: 0891417605; ISBN-13: 978-0891417606   

         Patriots of the 
       American Revolution

1779 CATTLE DRIVE FROM TEXAS TO LOUISIANA

TO BE COMMEMORATED

   August of 2009 will be the 230th anniversary of the first official cattle drive from the San Antonio area to Natchitoches and Opelousas, LA, via Goliad and Nacogdoches.  

The cattle were requested by the Spanish governor of Louisiana, Bernardo de Galvez, who was preparing to start a military campaign against British forces in Louisiana, Alabama and Florida, in support of Generals George Rogers Clark and George Washington and the American War of Independence. Galvez had already served as a significant source of war materials for the American forces in the West and to Washington.

The Spanish governor of Texas, Cabello, carried out the request and the first trail herd was gathered from mission ranches and private ranches in the San Antonio and La Bahia (Goliad) area and set out in August of 1779 in what was the first cattle drive in American History. Over the next two years more than 12,000 head of Texas longhorns were trailed to the Spanish forces as they won battles against the British forces at Manchac and Baton Rouge, Mobile, and Pensacola. Galvez knew that well feed troops always fought better and his use of Texas cattle, as a “traveling commissary”, proved to be decisive against the well trained and equipped British forces.  

This defeat of the British forces in the Gulf Coast area prevented them from going North in support of Cornwallis at Yorktown and other eastern battle sites.  

The 2009 Commemoration is being sponsored, among others, by the Granaderos y Damas de Galvez (since 1975 telling the story of Galvez) and the Texas Connection To The American Revolution Association (TCARA).  

Those groups are looking for members of The Texas Longhorn Breeders Association who are willing to supply a few longhorn cattle to recreate this historic 1779 cattle drive (in short reenactments). Tentative dates are August 1, 2009 in San Antonio area; August 2, 2009 in Goliad and August 8, 2009 in Nacogdoches with later dates in Louisiana.  

Contact point is Jack Cowan, Executive Director of TCARA at TCARAHO@AOL.COM or (210) 651-4709.

Valley Forge Workshop Commission
John D. Treantos, Jr. Area 3 
Commissioner and Post 172 Commander

SPANISH PATRIOTS OF PERU 
DURING THE AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY WAR 
Part 6

(Continued with surnames beginning with D and E)

Researched and Compiled by Granville Hough, Ph.D.

Antonio Dalor.  Lt, Mil Discip Inf Española de Lima, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXIII:29.

Bartolomé Dapelo.  Lt, Mil Discip Cab Ferreñafe, 1797.  Leg 7287:XIV:25.

José Darcourt.  Lt de Granaderos Inf Real de Lima, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXII:42.

José Antonio Darcourt y Tudela.  Cadet, Inf Real de Lima, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXII:138.

André Amador Davalos.  Lt, Mil Discip Dragones de Acari y Chala, 1796.  Leg 7286:I:14.

Esteban Davila.  Alf, Mil Pardos Libres de Lim, 1796.  Leg 7286:XII:63.

Felipe Sancho Davila.  Lt Col, Mil Prov Urbanas Dragones de Carabayllo, 1797.  Leg 7287:VII:3.

Francisco Paula Davila.  Cadet, Mil Urbanas Inf de Moquegua, 1797.  Leg 7287:XXVI:45.

Gregorio Davila.  Lt, Mil Españolas Cab de Luya y Chillaos, prov. De Chachapoya, 1792.  Leg 7284:XX:10.

José Davila.  SubLt de Granaderos, Mil Prov Discip Inf de Arequipa, 1800.  Leg 7288:I:60.

Juan Davila.  Capt, Mil Discip Dragones de Lima, 1790.  Leg 7283:IX:40.

Pascual Davila.  Capt de la 8^th Comp Mil Españolas Cab de Luya y Chillaos, Prov de Chachapoya, 1792.  Leg 7284:XX:2.

Julián Delgadillo.  Sgt, Mil Prov Urbanas Dragones de Quispicanchi, Cuzco, 1798.  Leg 7286:XX:30.

Andrés Delgado.  Capt, Momandante Mil Discip Cab Ferreñafe, 1797.  Leg 7287:XIV:11.

Bartolomé Delgado.  Porta-guión, Mil Prov Urbanas Dragones de Quispicanchi, Cuzco, 1798.  Leg 7286:XX:25.

Francisco Delgado.  Sgt, Mil Prov Urbanas Dragones de Chota, 1797.  Leg 7287:XIII:39.

Hermenegildo Delgado.  Capt, Mil Prov Urbanas Dragones de Quispicanchi, Cuzco, 1798.  Leg 7286:XX:5.

José Delgado.  Sgt, Mil Discip Inf Española de Lima, 1792.  Leg 7284:VIII:46.

Ramón Delgado.  Alf, Mil Prov Urbanas de Dragones de Quispicanchi, Cuzco, 1798.  Leg 7286:XX:24.

Francisco Delgado y Barriga.  Sgt, Mil Prov Discip Inf de Arequipa, 1800.  Leg 7288:I:78.

Juan Delicado.  Sgt, Inf Real de Lima, 1796.  Leg 7287:XXIV:83.

Jorge manuel Deza.  Alf, Mil Urbanas Cab San pablo de Chalaquez, 1798.  Leg 7287:XI:31.

Antonio Diaz.  Sgt, Mil Discip Cab de Ferreñafe, 1797.  Leg 7287:XIV:49.

Antonio Diaz.  Sgt, Mil Prov Urbanas de inf de Urubamba, 1797.  Leg 7287:XXXVIII:35.

Atanasio Diaz.  Capt, Mil Discip Cab Trujillo, Perú, 1797.  Leg 7287:XXXVI:4.

Bernardino Diaz.  Alf, Mil Prov Urbanas de Dragones de Celendin, Partido de Cajamarca, 1797.  Leg 7287:IX:21.

Félix Diaz.  Lt, Mil Discip Cab San Pablo de Chalaquez, 1798.  Leg 7287:XI:12.

Filiberto Diaz.  Capt de Granaderos, Mil Prov Discip de Inf de Castro, Chiloe, 1800.  Leg 7288:IX:23.

Gregorio Diaz.  Porta-guión, Mil Urbanas de Dragones de Palma, Partido de Jauja, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXI:24.

Ignacio Diaz.  Capt, Mil Prov Discip de Inf de Castro, Chiloe, 1800.  Leg 7288:IX:9&11.

Isidro Dliaz.  Sgt de Granaderos, Mil Prov Urbanas de Dragones de Celendin, Partido de Cajamarca, 1797.  Leg 7287:IX:39.

Jenaro Diaz.  Sgt de la 5^th Comp, Mil Prov de Dragones de Celendin, Partido de Cajamarca, 1797.  Leg 7287:IX:31.

José Diaz.  Sgt 1^st, de Granaderos, Comp sueltas de Inf Españolas de Mil Discip de Immemorial del Rey, Lima, 1794.  Leg 7285:IV:5.

Juan de la Cruz.  Alf, Mil Prov Urbanas de Dragones de Celendin, Partido de Cajamarca, 1797.  Leg 7287:IX:26.

Juan Manuel Diaz.  SubLt, Mil Urbanas Inf Moyobamba, 1797.  Leg 7287:XXIX:25.

Matías Diaz.  Lt, Mil Urbanas de Cab de San Pablo de Chalaquez, 1798.  Leg 7287:XI:16.

Matías Diaz.  Lt, Comp Sueltas de Inf y Cab de Morenos Libres de Lima, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXVI:2.

Pedro Diaz.  Capt, 1^st Comp suelta Inf Discip de San Carlos de Guapilacuy, Chiloe, 1800.  Leg 7288:VIII:1.

Ramón Diaz.  SubLt, Mil Discip Inf de Lambayeque, 1797.  Leg 7287:XXII:44.

Agustin Diaz de Aguayo y Palazuelo.  Col, Mil Prov de Dragones de Caraveli, 1797.  Leg 7287:VIII:1.

José Diaz de Arellano.  Capt, Mil Discip de Inf Española de Lima, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXIII:25.

Paulino Diaz de Leon.  Porta-guión, Mil Prov de Dragones de Chota, 1793.  Leg 7284:XXVI:4.

Félix Magallan.  Lt, 7^th Comp, Mil Urbanas Inf de Moyobamba, 1797.  Leg 7287:XXIX:15.

Gabriel Diaz de Sandi.  Alf, Mil Urbanas Cab San Pablo de Chalaquez, 1798.  Leg 7287:XI:38.

Manuel Diaz de Sandi.  Capt, Mil Urbanas Comp San Pablo de Chalaquez, 1792.  Leg 7284:XVIII:14.

Antonio Diaz de Soria.  Capt, Inf del Real Asiento de Paucartambo, 1798.  Leg 7286:XIX:12.

Felipe Diaz de la Torre.  Col, Mil Prov de Cab de Huanta, 1798.  Leg 7286:XVII:36.

Vicente Diaz Valdivieso.  Lt, Mil Dragones prov de las fronteras de Tarma, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXIX:12.

José Diez Canseco.  Capt, Mil Urbanas Inf de Moquegua, 1797.  Leg 7287:XXVI:8.

Francisco Dominguez.  ?Garzón? Sgt, Mil de Pardos Libres de Lima, 1792.  Leg 7284:XII:15.

José Dominguez.  SubLt, Mil Prov Discip de Inf de Castro, Chiloe, 1800.  Leg 7288:IX:64.

Manuel Dominguez.  Sgt, Inf Real de Lima, 1790.  Leg 7283:VIII:99.

Nicolás Dominguez.  Sgt, Mil Urbanas de Cab de los territorios Huancabamba y Chalaco, Piura, 1797.  Leg 7287:XXXIV:14.

José Donaire.  SubLt de banderas, Mil Prov Urbanas Inf de Huanta, 1800.  Leg 7288:XVIII:34.

José Eduardo Donaire.  Capt de Granaderos, Mil Prov Urbanas Inf de Huanta, 1800.  Leg 7288:XVIII:7.

Mateo Donaire.  Sgt, Inf Real de Lima, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXII:90.

José Antonio Donaires.  Capt, Mil Cab del Partido de Santa, 1799.  Leg 7286:XXIII:2.

Manel Dongo.  Alf, Mil Prov Discip de Dragones de Caraveli, 1796.  Leg 7287:VIII:29.

Antonio Donoso.  Lt Col, Mil de Pardos Libres de Lima, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXV:15.

Manuel Andrea Doria.  Capt de Granaderos, Mil Prov urbanas de Inf de Huánuco, 1796.  Leg 7286:V:8.

Pedro Dueñas.  Sgt, Mil Prov de Cab de Cuzco, 1797.  Leg 7287:X:37.

Francisco Dulanto.  Capt, Mil Discip Caab de Arnero de Chancay, 1800.  Leg 7288:III:10.

Pedro Dulanto.  Sgt, Mil Discip de Cab de Huaura, 1797.  Leg 7287:XIX:22.

Manuel Duque.  Lt, Mil Urbanas de Dragones de Palma, Partido de Juaja, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXI:13.

Diego Duran.  SubLt, Mil Urbanas Inf de Huancavelica, 1800.  Leg 7288:XVI:16.

Felipe Duran.  Lt, Mil Prov Urbanas Inf de Cajamarca, 1797.  Leg 7287:IV:13.

Juan Esteban Duran.  Sgt Mayor, Mil Prov Urbanas Inf de Huánuco, 1796.  Leg 7286:V:3.  

Juan de Eceta y Ceballos.  Cadet, Inf, Real de Lima, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXII:129.

Francisco Echarri.  Sgt, Bn Prov Mil Pardos Libres de Lima, 1794.  Leg 7285:VI:11.

Gregorio Echave.  Alf, Dragones Prov de las fronteras de Tarma, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXIX:33.

Miguel Echave.  Ayudante Mayor, Dragones Prov de las fronteras de Tarma, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXIX:13.

Pedro Echave y Mollinedo.  Col, Mil Prov Cab de Cuzco, 1797.  Leg 7287:X:2.

Ramón Echaverria.  Sgt de la 3^rd Comp Mil Prov Discip Inf de Arequipa, 1792.  Leg 7284:III:69.

Pedro Antonio Echegoyen.  Capt, Mil Prov Urbanas Cab de Huanuco, 1797.  Leg 7286:VI:8.

Juan Echevarria.  Lt, Mil Dragones Prov de las fronteras de tarma, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXIX:20.

Juan de Echevarria.  Col, Mil Prov Cab de Huamalies, 1800.  Leg 7288:XVII:1.

Pedro de Echevarria.  Capt de Carabineros, Mil Prov Discip Cab de Arequipa, 1797.  Leg 7287:II:9.

Felipe de Echeverria.  Lt, Mil Discip de Cab de Ica, 1800.  Leg 7288:XX:19.

José de Echeverria.  Sgt, Mil Discip Dragones de Lima, 1794.  Leg 7285:VII:58.

Agustin José Egusquiza.  Capt, Mil Cab del partido de Santa, 1792. Leg 7284:XXIII:3.

Antonio de Elejalde.  Lt, Comp sueltas Mil Discip, Inf de Ica, 1800.  Leg 7288:XIX:10.

Manuel Elguero.  Cadet, Mil Urbanas Inf de Huancavelica, 1800.  Leg 7288:XVI:27.

Victorino Elgueta.  Sgt, Mil Prov Discip Inf de Castro, Chiloe, 1800.  Leg 7288:IX:96.

Gregorio de Elizares.  Capt, Mil Prov Urbanas Inf de Huanta, 1800.  Leg 7288:XVIII:10.

Manuel de Elizares.  Capt, Mil Prov Urbanas Inf de Huanta, 1800.  Leg 7288:XVIII:14. 

José de Elizundi.  Alf, Mil Discip Dragones de Lima, 1796.  Leg 7286:XI:40.

Juan Antonio Encalada.  Sgt de Granaderos, Comp sueltas Inf Española Mil Discip de Immemorial del Rey, 1796.  Leg 7286:VII:4.

Domingo Enciso.  SubLt, Mil Prov Urbanas Inf de Huanta, 1800.  Leg 7288:XVIII:45.

Baltasar Erazu.  Capt, Mil Discip Dragones de Lima, 1796.  Leg 7286:XI:21.

José Ermosin.  Alf, Mil Prov Discip de Cab del Valle de Chincha, 1795.  Leg 7285:XIV:29.

José Antonio de Errea.  Capt grad Lt Col de Milicia, Mil Discip de Dragones de Lima, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXIV:14.

Juan Fermin de Errea.  Lt Col, Mil Discip Prov Cab de Arequipa, 1797.  Leg 7287:II:3. (Also listed as Juan Fermin de Erredo.)

José María Errea y Fuente.  Cadet, Mil Prov Discip de Cab de Arequipa, 1797.  Leg 7287:II:66.

 José Escalante.  Cadet, Mil Prov Urbanas de Dragones de Chota, 1797.  Leg 7287:XIII:58.

Agustin Escalante y Barba.  Alf, Mil Prov de Dragones de Chota, 1797.  Leg 7287:XIII:37.

Diego Escobar.  Capt, grad Lt Col, Inf Real de Lima, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXII:17.

José Escobar.  SubLt, Inf Real de Lima, 1788.  Leg 7283:II:79.

José Luis Escobar.  Lt, Mil Discip de Dragones de Arica, 1800.  Leg 7288:II:24.

Pedro Manuel Escobar.  Alf Mil Discip de Dragones de Lima, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXIV:58.

José Escobar y Fuente.  Cadet, Mil Discip Dragones de Lima, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXIV:76.

Antonio Escobedo.  Ayudante Mayor, Mil Prov Discip Inf de San Miguel de Piura, 1800.  Leg 7286:XXV:13.

Bartolomé Escobedo.  Sgt, Mil Discip Urbanas de inf de Calca, 1797.  Leg 7287:V:19.

Matías Escobedo.  SubLt, Mil Prov Urbanas de Inf de Calca, 1797.  Leg 7287:V:17, bis.

José María Espejo.  Lt, Bn Prov de Mil de Pardos Libres de Lima, 1796.  Leg 7286:XII:34.

Juan Manuel Espejo.  Cadet, Inf Real de Lima, 1793.  Leg 7284:IX:108.

Antonio Espiel.  Capt, Mil Prov Discip Cab de Arequipa, 1797.  Leg 7287:II:12.

Miguel Espinach.  Lt Col, Mil Prov Urbanas Inf San Antonio de Cajamarca, 1797.  Leg 7287:III:1.

Pablo Espinach.  Lt Col, Mil Prov Urbanas Dragones de Huambos, partido de Cajamarca, 1797.  Leg 7287:XVII:2.

Ambrosio Espinosa.  Porta-estandarte, Mil Prov Urbanas Cab de Huanuco, 1797.  Leg 7286:VI:23.

Baltasar Espinosa.  Sgt, Escuadrones Cab Mil Urbanas de los territoros de Huancabamba y Chalaco, Piura, 1797.  Leg 7187:XXXIV:17.

Bernardino Espinosa. Capt, Bn Prov Mil de Pardos Libres de Lima, 1796.  Leg 7286:XII:21.

Bernardo Espinosa.  Sgt, Mil Prov Discip de Dragones de Caraveli, 1796.  Leg 7287:VIII:35.

Francisco Espinosa.  SubLt de Fusileros, Comp sueltas Inf Mil Discip de Imemorial del Rey, Lima.  1792.  Leg 7284:VII:5.

Francisco Espinosa.  Lt, grad Capt, Mil Urbanas Inf de Andahuaylas, 1799.  Leg 7286:XXII:14.

Gabriel Espinosa.  Sgt de Fusileros, Mil Prov Urbanas Inf de Cajamarca, 1797.  Leg 7287:IV:31.

Juan Espinosa.  Sgt, Mil Dragones Prov de las fronteras de Tarma, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXIX:41.

Miguel de Espinosa.  Lt, Mil Prov Urbanas Inf de Urubamba, 1797.  Leg 7287:XXXVIII:21.

Pablo Espinosa.  Lt, Mil Prov urbanas Inf de Abancay, 1793.  Leg 7284:II:14.

Gregorio Javier Espinosa de los Monteros.  Capt, Comandante, Mil Discip Dragones del pueblo de Amotape, Piura, 1795.  Leg 7285:XXIII:2.

Luis Espinosa de los Monteros.  Sgt, Mil Prov Discip Cab de Cuzco, 1792.  Leg 7284:XVII:30.

José Espircuela.  Sgt, Mil Discip Cab de Huaura, 1797.  Leg 7287:XIX:21.

Alejo Estacio.  Lt, Bn Prov Mil Discip Inf Española de Lima, 1800.  Leg7288:XXIII:30.

Manuel Esteban.  Capt, grad Lt Col, Inf Real de Lima, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXII:20.

Tomás Esteban.  Sgt, Inf, Real de Lima, 1796.  Leg 7287:XXIV:92.

Narciso Estela.  Sgt, Mil Prov Urbanas Cab de Huanuco, 1797.  Leg 7286:VI:32.

Pedro Estela.  Ayudante Mayor, Mil Prov Discip Inf de Lambayeque, 1797.  Leg 7287:XXII:10.

José María Estella.  Cadet, Inf Real de Lima, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXII:127.

José Nicolás de Estella.  Cadet, Inf Real de Lima, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXII:142.

Manuel Estella.  Capt, Inf Real de Lima, 1800.  Leg 7288:XXII:24.

Rafael Esteva y Ilach.  Capt Comandante, Mil Prov Urbanas Dragones de Celendin, partido de Cajamarca, 1797.  Leg 7287:IX:3.

Félix Estrada.  Porta-estandarte, Mil Prov Discip Cab del valle de Chincha, 1797.  Leg 7287:XII:29.

Fermin Estrada.  Porta-estandarte, Mil Prov Discip Cab del valle de Chincha, 1797.  Leg 7287:XII:28.

Mariano de Estrada y Aguilar.  Sgt, Mil Discip Inf de Cuzco, 1800.  Leg 7286:XXIV:39.

Ramón Estrella y Villarruel.  SubLt de Bandera, Mil Prov Discip inf de Sam Miguel de Piura, 1800.  Leg 7286:XXV:25.

Miguel Estremiana.  SubLt, Inf Real de Lima, 1788.  Leg 7283:II:66.

Juan Pedro Ezleburu.  Capt, Mil urbanas Inf de Moquegua, 1792.  Leg 7284:XXIV:10.

José Manuel Ezquerre.  Lt, Mil Discip de Pardos y Morenos Inf de Lambayeque, 1797.  Leg 7287:XXIII:7.

(to be continued.)