|
[1]
A Spanish language version of portions of this essay without the
bibliography appeared in ISTOR:
Revista de Historia International, “Estados Unidos Latinos,”
Año XVII, 71, Invierno 2017-2018, 93-120.
[1]
Diligent students could also find many works written by Anglo Americans
about the history of the American Southwest before 1848.
Hubert Howe Bancroft’s multi volume histories of Texas, New
Mexico and California were well known to scholars, along with the work
of Herbert Eugene Bolton, John Francis Bannon and others who promoted
the Spanish heritage of the Southwest.
The young Chicano historians criticized
this approach to the Hispanic heritage in the U.S. as much too
celebratory of things Spanish while devaluing the indigenous and mestizo
presence. Carey
McWilliams in his 1949 book North
From Mexico characterized their approach as constructing a
“Fantasy Heritage.”
[1]
The intellectual origins of Chicano history were complex coming from
Mexican history as well as from current trends in American and Latin
American history. The
historians of the American West led by
Frederick Jackson Turner, Ray Allan Billington, Howard Lamar,
Walter Webb Prescott and others showed how Mexicans had been rendered
invisible from the historical imagination and necessitated a new
interpretation. There
were, of course many works by Mexican historians dealing with their
frontier but they were largely unread because they were purblished in
the Spanish language and did not deal with the Mexicans in the U.S.
after 1848. The
lack of historical attention by both American and Mexican historians
motivated many young scholars to create a new field of study, called
Chicano history, the history of Mexicans in the U.S. after 1848.
[1]
For an overview of the history of Internal Colonialism as a model In the
U.S. see Gutirrez, Ram A., “Internal Colonialism: An American Theory
of Race. Du Bois Review, 2004, 1(2),
281-295. Recently John
Chavez has forcefully argued that this theory has a world-wide validity
enabling a realistic
evaluation of the hierarchies that have emerged through historical
conquest and domination thus challenging static views of the
borderlands. See John
Chavez, “When Borders Cross Peoples: The Internal Colonial Challenge
to Borderlands Theory,” Journal
of Borderlands Studies, 28:1, 33-46.
[1]
Gloria Anzaldua, Borderlands/La
Frontera: The New Mestiza – La Frontera, Spinsters/Aunt
Lute, 1989); Emma Perez, The
Decolonial Imaginary: Writing Chicanas into History (Theories of
Representation and Difference), (Indiana
University Press, 1999).
[1]
A review of the NACCS programs since 1973 reveals the
intellectual activity of hundreds of Chicanas researching and writing
history. See http://www.naccs.org/naccs/Conference_Archives.asp
[1]
Rosaura Sánchez, Beatrice Pita, eds.,
Burton, María Amparo
The Squatter and the Don
( Arte Público Press, 1999) ) and Conflicts
of Interest: The Letters of María Amparo Ruiz De Burton ( Arte
Público,
2001). Rosaura Sanchez, Telling
Identities: the Californio Testimonios (University of Minnesota
Press, 1995).
[1]
Surveys of Chicano history’s development before the year 2000 are: An
analysis of the growth of Chicano history since its inception up to the
millennium is given in these works: Juan Gomez-Quiñones, “Toward a
Perspective on Chicano History,”Aztlan, Vol. 2,
No. 2, (Fall 1971), 1-49; Arthur
F. Corwin, “Mexican-American
History: An Assessment,” Pacific Historical Review Vol. 42, No. 3
(Aug., 1973), 269-308; Juan
Gómez-Quiñones and Luis Leobardo Arroyo,
“On the State of Chicano History: Observations on Its
Development, Interpretations, and Theory, 1970-1974,” Western
Historical Quarterly Vol. 7, No. 2 (Apr., 1976),
155-185; Alex
Saragosa, “ The significance of recent Chicano-related historical
writings: an appraisal,” Ethnic Affairs,
Center for Mexican American Studies
(1987), University of Texas, Austin;
Richard Griswold del Castillo, “Chicano Historical Discourse:
An Overview and Evaluation of the 1980s,” Perspectives in Mexican
American Studies, Vol. 4
(1993), 1-25; Gilbert
G. González and Raúl Fernández, “Chicano History: Transcending
Cultural Models,” Pacific
Historical Review, Vol. 63, No. 4 (Nov., 1994), 469-497.
[1]
There are several excellent historiographic resources that supplement
our study. The most recent
is the special issue of the Pacific
Historical Review published in 2013 entitled “ Chicano/a History:
Looking Forward after Forty
Years” with contributions by Albert M.
Camarillo, Ernesto Chávez, Natalia Molina, Miroslava Chávez-García,
Raúl A. Ramos and Alexandra Minna Stern.
[1]
Some of the encyclopedias will be discussed in this essay.
The internet provides an extensive
resource for compiling bibliographies of Mexican American,
Chicana/o, Latino
historical studies. The
internet gives easy access to archival collections about Mexicans in the
U.S. Foremost among
them are UCLA’s Chicano Studies Research Collection (http://www.chicano.ucla.edu/library),
the University of Texas at Austin’s massive archive (https://legacy.lib.utexas.edu/benson/collections/rare-books-and-manuscripts/mexican-american-latino-manuscripts),
the collections at the University of Texas San Antonio (http://web.lib.utsa.edu/special-collections/manuscripts/index.php?type=subj&subj_area=537),
the
University of California at San Diego’s digited collections (https://library.ucsd.edu/research-and-collections/collections/special-collections-and-archives/manuscripts/chicano
-studies-manuscript-collections.html)
as well as SDSU’s Chicano Archive, specializing in Chicana Civil
Rights activists (https://www.google.com/search?q=sdsu+chicano+archive&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&client=firefox-b-1).
Chicana/o Historical Works
Published since 2000:
A Bibliography and
Reference Guide
Before
1848
Coronado,
Raúl. A
World Not to Come: A History of Latino Writing and Print Culture.
Harvard University Press, 2013.
Mora-Torres,
Gregorio. California Voices: The Oral Memoirs of José Mariá Amador and Lorenzo
Asisara. University of North Texas Press, 2005.
Padilla,
Genaro. The Daring Flight of My
Pen: Cultural Politics and Gaspar Pérez de Villagra's Historia de la
Nueva Mexico, 1610. University of New Mexico Press, 2011.
Rabasa,
José. Writing Violence on the
Northern Frontier: The Historiography of Sixteenth-Century New Mexico
and Florida and the Legacy of Conquest. Duke University Press, 2000.
Ramos,
Raúl. A.
Beyond the Alamo: Forging Mexican Ethnicity in San Antonio, 1821-1861.
University of North Carolina Press, 2008.
Reséndez,
Andrés, editor and translator. A
Texas Patriot on Trial in Mexico: José
Antonio Navarro and the Texan Santa Fe Expedition. Southern
Methodist University Press, 2004.
------.
Changing National Identities at
the Frontier: Texas and New Mexico, 1800-1850. Cambridge
University Press, 2005.
1848-1940
Acuña,
Rodolfo F. Corridors of Migration:
The Odyssey of Mexican Laborers, 1600—1933. University of Arizona
Press, 2008.
Adams,
John A. Jr. Conflict and Commerce
on the Rio Grande: Laredo, 1755-1955. Texas A&M University
Press, 2008.
Almaguer,
Toma. Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in
California. University of California Press, 2008.
Balderrama,
Francisco E. and Raymond Rodríguez. Decade
of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s. University of New
Mexico Press, 2006.
Barajas,
Frank. Curious
Unions: Mexican American Workers and Resistance in Oxnard, California,
1898-1961. University of Nebraska Press, 2012.
Calderón,
Roberto R. Mexican Coal Mining
Labor in Texas and Coahuila, 1880-1930. Texas A&M University
Press, 2000.
Carrigan,
William D. and Clive Webb. Forgotten
Dead: Mob Violence against Mexicans in the United States, 1848-1928.
Oxford University Press, 2013.
de
la Garza, Beatriz. A
Law for the Lion: A Tale of Crime and Injustice in the Borderlands.
University of Texas Press, 2003.
-------.
From
the Republic of the Rio Grande: A Personal History of the Place and the
People. University of Texas Press, 2013.
De
León, Arnoldo ,editor. War Along the Border: The Mexican Revolution and Tejano Communities.
Texas A&M University Press, 2012.
Dewey,
Alicia M. Pesos and Dollars: Entrepreneurs in the Texas-Mexico Borderlands,
1880-1940. Texas A&M University Press, 2014.
Díaz,
George T. Border Contraband: A
History of Smuggling Across the Rio Grande. University of Texas
Press, 2015.
Estrada,
William D. Los Angeles's Olvera
Street. Arcadia Publishing Co., 2006.
Garcilazo,
Jeffrey Marcos. Traqueros: Mexican Railroad Workers in the United States, 1870 to
1930. University of North Texas Press, 2012.
Gonzales,
Phillip B. Politica:
Nuevomexicanos and American Political
Incorporation, 1821-1910. University of Nebraska Press, 2016.
Gonzales-Day,
Ken. Lynching
in the West, 1850-1935. Duke
University Press, 2006.
González,
Gilbert G. Mexican Consuls and
Labor Organizing: Imperial Politics in the American Southwest. University
of Texas Press, 2010.
Harris,
Charles H. and Louis R. Sadler. The
Plan de San Diego: Tejano Rebellion, Mexican Intrigue. University of Nebraska
Press, 2013.
---------.
The Texas Rangers and the Mexican
Revolution: The Bloodiest Decade, 1910-1940.
University of New Mexico Press, 2004.
Hernández,
José Angel. Mexican
American Colonization during the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge
University Press, 2011.
Johnson,
Benjamin H. Revolution in Texas:
How a Forgotten Rebellion and Its Bloody Suppression Turned Mexicans
into Americans. Yale University Press, 2003.
Levario,
Miguel Antonio. Militarizing the Border: When Mexicans Became the Enemy. Texas
A&M University Press, 2012.
Lukens,
Patrick D. A Quiet Victory for
Latino Rights: FDR and the Controversy over “Whiteness”. University
of Arizona Press, 2012.
McAllen,
Amberson, Mary Margaret, James A. McAllen & Margaret H. McAllen.
I Would Rather Sleep in Texas: A History of the Lower Rio Grande
Valley and the People of the Santa Anita Land Grant.
Texas State Historical Association, 2003.
McDonald,
Jason. Racial
Dynamics in Early Twentieth Century. Lexington Books, 2012.
Mitchell,
Pablo. West of Sex: Making Mexican
America, 1900-1930. University of Chicago Press, 2012.
Montoya,
María E. Translating Property:
The Maxwell Land Grant and the Conflict over Land in the American West,
1840-1900. University of
Kansas Press, 2005.
Mora,
Anthony P. Border Dilemmas: Racial
and National Uncertainties in New Mexico, 1848–1912. Duke
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Ngai,Mae.
Impossible Subjects: Illegal
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2004.
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John M. The Language of Blood: The
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University of New Mexico Press, 2008.
Noel,
Linda C. Debating American
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of Arizona Press, 2014.
Plascencia,
Luis F. B. and Gloria H. Cuádraz, editors.
Mexican Workers and the
Making of Arizona. University
of Arizona Press, 2018.
Pycior,
Julie Leininger. Democratic
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University Press, 2014.
Ramírez,
José. A. To the Line of Fire!
Mexican Texans and World War I. Texas A&M University Press,
2009.
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Nannette and Arturo Villarreal, Mexicans
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Sánchez,
Joseph P. Between Two Rivers: The
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Jerry D. Vaqueros in Blue and Gray.
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Emilio, editor. The World War I
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2014.
Mexican American era 1940-1965
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Timothy Paul. Blood
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Patrick J. Felix Longoria’s
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Flores.
Lori A. Grounds for Dreaming:
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García,
Ignacio M. Viva Kennedy: Mexican
Americans in Search of Camelot. Texas A&M University Press,
2000.
---------.
White But Not Equal Mexican
Americans, Jury Discrimination, and the Supreme Court. University of
Arizona Press, 2008.
Griswold
del Castillo, Richard, editor. World
War II and Mexican American Civil Rights. University of Texas
Press, 2008.
Gritter,
Matthew. Mexican
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Southwest. Texas A&M University Press, 2012.
Harrison,
Carlos. The Ghosts of Hero Street:
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Craig A. LULAC, Mexican Americans,
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Michelle Hall. Héctor
P. García: Everyday Rhetoric and Mexican American Civil Rights.
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Márquez,
Benjamin. Constructing Identities
in Mexican American Political Organizations: Choosing Issues, Taking
Sides. University of
Texas Press, 2003.
-------.
Democratizing Texas Politics:
Race, Identity, and Mexican American Empowerment, 1945-2002.
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Olivas,
Michael A. editor, “COLORED
MEN” and “HOMBRES AQUI”: Hernandez v. Texas and the Emergence of
Mexican American Lawyering. Arte Público Press, 2006.
Quiroz,
Anthony. Claiming Citizenship: Mexican Americans in Victoria, Texas. Texas
A&M University Press, 2005.
Rivas-Rodriguez, Maggie and Emilio Zamora, editors. Beyond The Latino World War II Hero: The Social and Political Legacy of
a Generation. University of Texas Press, 2009.
------
and B.V. Olguin, eds. Latina/os and World War II: Mobility, Agency, and Ideology.
University of Texas Press, 2014.
-----
editor. A
Legacy Greater Than Words: Stories of U.S. Latinos & Latinas of the
WWII Generation. University of Texas Press, 2006.
-----
editor. Mexican Americans and
World War II. University
of Texas Press, 2005.
------
editor. Texas Mexican Americans
and Postwar Civil Rights. University of Texas Press, 2015.
Rosales,
Rodolfo. The Illusion of Inclusion: The Untold Political Story of San Antonio.
University of Texas Press, 2000.
Tapia,
Mike. The Barrio Gangs of San
Antonio, 1915-2015. Texas Christian University Press, 2017.
Valdés,
Dionisio Nodín. Organized Agriculture and the Labor Movement before the UFW: Puerto
Rico, Hawa’i, and California.
University of Texas Press, 2012.
Villanueva,
Nicholas Jr. The Lynching of
Mexicans in the Texas Borderlands. University of New Mexico Press,
2017.
Weber,
John. From
South Texas to the Nation: The Exploitation of Mexican Labor in the
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Yarsinke,
Amy Waters. All for One and One for All: A Celebration of 75 Years of the League of
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Zamora,
Emilio. Claiming Rights and
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Chicano Movement
F.
Acuña, Rodolfo. The Making of
Chicana/o Studies: In the Trenches of Academe.Rutgers
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-------. Assault on Mexican
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Megan and Yolanda Alaniz. Viva la
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Arturo J. and Naomi Quiñonez.
Decolonial Voices: Chicana and
Chicano Cultural Studies in the 21st Century. Indiana
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Behnken,
Brian D. Fighting Their Own
Battles: Mexican Americans,
African Americans, and the Struggle for Civil Rights in Texas.
University of North Carolina Press, 2011.
Berta-Avila,
Margarita, Anita Tijerina-Revilla, and
Julie Figueroa. Marching
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Maylei. ¡Chicana Power!:
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Ernesto. "Ã Mi Raza Primero!"
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William S.. Freedom Is Not Enough:
The War on Poverty and the Civil Rights Movement in Texas.
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Esquibel,
Antonio. Message
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García,
Mario T. Blowout!: Sal Castro and
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Mario
T. García, The Chicano Generation: Testimonios of the Movement
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-----.
The Chicano Movement:
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-----.
A Dolores Huerta Reader.
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Garcia, Matt. From
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Juan and Irene Vásquez. Making
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Gutiérrez,
José Angel, A Chicano Manual on
How to Handle Gringos. Arte Público Press, 2003.
López,
Ian F. Haney. Racism on Trial: The
Chicano Fight for Justice. Harvard University Press, 2009.
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Ella Maria. Flying
Under the Radar with the Royal Chicano Air Force: Mapping a Chicano/a
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Armando. La
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George.
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------.
¡Raza Sí! ¡Guerra No!: Chicano Protest and Patriotism during
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------
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------
and John R. Chavez. eds. Memories
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-------
Hector P. Garcia: In Relentless
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García, Mario T. Luis Leal: An Auto/Biography. University of
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Guilbault,
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|
At a very early age, Mamá instilled in me that my nativity in the
modest two-room adobe house, with a dirt floor, in the Barrio El Azteca,
the oldest working class neighborhood in Laredo, Texas, was not a
hindrance that would remain with me forever. At the age of three years
old, Mamá started inculcating in me that learning and knowledge were
the passport to getting ahead in life and away from the sociological and
economic borders of the Barrio El Azteca until it was etched in my
subconscious and in my heart. Moreover, she implanted in me her code of
conduct: honesty, goodness, charitableness, truthfulness, and above all,
a strong moral character. Mamá had received her education in Veracruz,
Mexico, so Spanish was the language spoken at home, in the Barrio El
Azteca, and throughout Laredo. Having completed my third birthday, she
taught me how to read and write in Spanish. She was a firm believer in a
strong work ethic. My brother Peter and I started working when I was
four and he was seven. My paternal grandfather wanted to give Peter and
I an allowance and Mamá quickly put a stop to it. She told him,
"My sons will not carry any money they have not earned by the sweat
of their brows, until they know what it is to work."
At
every opportunity, while I was growing up, she infused the drive and
determination to succeed, to better myself, to get good grades, to
continue my education beyond high school, and to postpone material
gratification for later. In short, and without her knowledge, Mamá's
sage advice was about living the American Dream, always striving to
become financially independent, a contributing member of society, and to
set high aspirations and standards for a better life and a more
desirable future.
And
the friendship continued over the years, even after the devasting
flood of the summer of 1954 that forced my family and Chano and Gloria
Lozano to evacuate and relocate. We moved about two blocks up on
Iturbide Street and they moved eight blocks away to Zaragoza Street.
Every Thursday evening, Chano would drop off his family and sometimes
Gloria's two sisters and their mother with their children to visit us.
I
was learning more about interacting with people now that I had the
responsibility of managing a paper route.
Melmedy
is a small village near Bastone, where about 150 American Soldiers
surrendered to the Germans.
School girls walk in front of a sign at
the ramshackle town of Morococha in the Andean city of Junin, June 18,
2012. High in the Andes mountain range, a Chinese mining company is now
in the housing construction and demolition business as it works to
relocate a Peruvian town that sits in the way of its $2.2 billion
Toromocho copper mine. By late July, state-owned miner Chinalco says it
will finish building a new city of paved roads and multi-story homes for
5,000 people currently living on the side of a giant red mountain of
copper 15,000 feet (4,500 meters) above sea level. Picture taken June
18, 2012.
Desde
la muerte de su hermanastra María(la esposa de Felipe II), Isabel I
comenzó a perseguir a los católicos de puertas para adentro y alinearse
con las fuerzas protestantes en el resto de Europa. El conflicto abierto
entre Isabel I de Inglaterra y Felipe II de España era así inevitable,
siendo el casus belli el apoyo inglés a los protestantes en los Países
Bajos, bajo la soberanía hispánica, y el envío de tropas y dinero de
forma no oficial para la causa del rival de Felipe II por el trono
portugués, Don Antonio. Si bien la Corona inglesa prestó toda clase de
apoyo a los principales enemigos de España, no fue hasta después de la
conquista de Amberes, en manos rebeldes, que la presencia militar inglesa
junto a las tropas holandesas se hizo oficial y continuada con la firma
del Tratado de Nonsuch. 
L
