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The present state of Zacatecas is located at the geographical center
of Mexico. Its shares
borders with eight states: Coahuila de Zaragoza (on the north),
Durango (on the west), Nayarit (on the southwest, Jalisco and
Aguascalientes (on the south), Guanajuato (on the southeast), San Luis
Potosí (on the west) and Nuevo León (on the northwest). As the
eighth largest state of Mexico, Zacatecas has a square area of 75,284
square kilometers, equal to 3.84% of the national territory. The State
of Zacatecas is divided into fifty-eight municipios, with the City of
Zacatecas as its capital. Its territory lies wholly within the central
plateau and is traversed by Sierra Madre Occidental mountain ranges.
In 2010,
Zacatecas had a population of 1,579,209 people, ranking it No. 25
among the Mexican states in terms of population.
The capital of the State is Zacatecas, which had a population
of 129,011 in 2010, representing 8.2% of the state’s total
population. Guadalupe is the second largest city in terms of
population, followed by Fresnillo and Jerez de García-Salinas.
The
Zacatecas Economy
The
Zacatecas economy primarily depends upon cattle-raising, agriculture,
mining, communications, food processing, tourism, and transportation.
From 1546 to the present day, Zacatecas has depended upon silver
mining for its livelihood. Today, the more than 15 mining districts in
Zacatecas yield silver, lead, zinc, gold, phosphorite, wollastonite,
fluorite and barium.
In fact,
thanks of Zacatecas, Mexico is
the largest producer of silver in the world today, contributing 17
percent of the world’s total output. In fact, Fresnillo Plc. (Public
limited company), which owns silver mines throughout Mexico, is the
largest producer of silver in the world and its Saucito mine, located
8 km southwest of its Fresnillo mine, is the largest silver producing
mine in the world. The Fresnillo mine is number six in world
production.
As of
2016, mining contributes 29.8% to the gross domestic product (GDP) of
Zacatecas. But of Zacatecas’ 628,000 workers, more than one-quarter
(173,368 – or 25.3%) are employed by the agriculture, forestry,
fishing and hunting industries. Although much of Zacatecas is desert,
the primary economic driver of the state is agriculture. Zacatecas
farmers are Mexico’s foremost producers of beans, chili peppers and
cactus leaves and also grow significant guava, grape and peach crops.
Pre-Columbian
Zacatecas
The indigenous history of Zacatecas stretches so far into the past
that we are unable to say exactly when people settled in the area.
Even today, in many parts of Zacatecas, a hundred or more ancient
ruins in the state give testimony to an ancient civilization that
flourished in western Zacatecas along the eastern slopes of the Sierra
Madre Occidental between about 200 and 1250 A.D. The largest
pre-Columbian settlement in Zacatecas can be found in southwestern
Zacatecas. In 1535, when the Spaniards discovered La Quemada, they commented
on its wide streets and “imposing appearance.”
First
occupied between about 200 and 300 A.D., La Quemada's population
probably peaked after 500 A.D., and was abandoned completely by 900
A.D. Some historians believe that La Quemada may have been the
legendary Chicomostoc,
the place where the Aztecs stayed nine years during their extended
journey from Aztlán to
Tenochtitlán (the site of present day Mexico City).
The
massive ruins at this fortified ceremonial site consist of extensive
terraces and broad stone causeways, as well as gigantic pillars, 18
feet in height and 17 feet in circumference. Located
in the municipio of Villanueva, La Quemada’s massive ruins remain
one of Zacatecas’ most important archeological sites and is located
about 56 km south of the City of Zacatecas on Federal Highway 54
Zacatecas–Guadalajara, in Mexico.
The
archaeological site of Alta
Vista, at Chalchihuites, is located 137 miles to the northwest of
the City of Zacatecas and 102 miles southeast of the City of Durango.
Located to the west of Sombrerete in the northwestern corner of the
state, it is believed that the site was a cultural oasis that was
occupied more or less continuously from 100 A.D. to 1400 A.D. The
archaeologist Manuel Gamio referred to Chalchihuites as a “culture
of transition” between the Mesoamerican civilizations and the
so-called Chichimeca hunters/gatherers who lived in the arid plateau
of central Mexico when the Spaniards arrived. Although both
Chalchihuites and Le Quemada represented outposts of Mesoamerican
settlement, climatic changes eventually led to their abandonment.
Early
Spanish Exploration
After
the conquest of southern Mexico in 1521, Hernán Cortés sent several
expeditions north to explore La
Gran Chichimeca. Juan Alvarez Chico and Alonso de Avalos each
led expeditions northward into the land we now call Zacatecas. By this
time, the Aztec and Tlaxcalan nations had aligned themselves with the
Spaniards and most explorations were undertaken jointly with Spanish
soldiers and Indian warriors. These expeditions went north in the
hopes of developing trade relations with the northern tribes and
finding mineral wealth. Each expedition was accompanied by
missionaries who did their part to Christianize the native peoples.
Nuño
de Guzmán
In
December 1529, Nuño de Guzmán, left Mexico City at the head of a
force of five hundred Spaniards and 10,000 Indian soldiers. According
to J. Lloyd Mecham, the author of Francisco
de Ibarra and Nueva Vizcaya, “Guzmán was an able and even
brilliant lawyer, a man of great energy and firmness, but insatiably
ambitious, aggressive, wily, and cruel.” In
a rapid and brutal campaign lasting from February to June, 1530, Guzmán
traveled through Michoacán, Jalisco, and southern Zacatecas. The
historian Peter Gerhard writes that “Guzmán's strategy throughout
was to terrorize the natives with often unprovoked killing, torture,
and enslavement. The army left a path of corpses and destroyed houses
and crops, impressing surviving males into service and leaving women
and children to starve.”
Taking
formal possession of the conquered areas, Guzmán named his conquered
territory “Greater Spain.”
However, twelve years later, the Spaniard administration
renamed the region as Nueva
Galicia (New Galicia). This
new territory initially took in most of the present-day states of
Zacatecas, Durango, Coahuila, Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosi, and
Nayarit.
Reports
of Guzmán's brutal treatment of the indigenous people got the
attention of the authorities in Mexico City. In 1536, he was arrested,
imprisoned and put on trial. Two years later, his trial was removed to
Spain, where he would die in poverty and disgrace. But the actions of
this man would stir up hatred and resentment that would haunt the
Spaniards for the rest of the Sixteenth Century.
The
First Guadalajara
One of
the earliest encounters that the Zacatecas Indians had with the
Europeans took place in 1530 when Juan de Oñate, a lieutenant of the
conquistador Nuño de Guzmán, began construction of a small town near
the site of present-day Nochistlán in southern Zacatecas. Oñate
called this small village La
Villa de Espíritu Santo de Guadalajara in honor of the
Spanish city where Guzmán had been born.
However,
from the beginning, the small settlement had come under Indian attack
and in 1531, the Indians of nearby Teul massacred the local Spanish
garrison as well as the reinforcements dispatched to subdue them.
Recognizing that the neighborhood was not very receptive to its
Spanish neighbors, Guzmán, in 1533, decided to move Guadalajara to
another site, closer to the center of the province. The City of
Guadalajara - today the second largest urban center of Mexico - would
be founded at its present location farther south in 1542.
La
Gran Chichimeca
When the
Spaniards started exploring Zacatecas in the 1520s and 1530s, they
encountered several nomadic tribes occupying the area which they
referred to as La Gran Chichimeca. The
Aztecs had collectively referred to these Indians with the
all-encompassing term, Chichimecas.
The primary Chichimeca groups that occupied the present-day area of
Zacatecas were the Zacatecos, Cazcanes, Tepehuanes and Guachichiles,
and they had never been conquered by the Aztecs.
According
to Eugene B. Sego’s Ph.D. dissertation, the Gran Chichimeca could be
“roughly perceived by visualizing an imaginary line running west
from the present-day site of Querétaro through Lake Chapala and
Guadalajara, thence north to Durango, northeast to Saltillo, and then
south along the Sierra Madre Oriental mountain range, to the point of
beginning.” Its southern
boundary lay only seventy miles north of Mexico City.
All
of the Chichimeca Indians shared a primitive hunting-collecting
culture, based on the gathering of mesquite and tunas (the fruit of
the nopal). However, many
of them also lived off of acorns, roots and seeds. Many Chichimec
tribes utilized the juice of the agave as a substitute for water when
the latter was in short supply. The Chichimecas also hunted a large
number of small animals, including frogs, lizards, snakes and worms.
The
historian Philip Wayne Powell has written several books that dealt
with the Chichimeca Indians and the Spanish encounter with these
Indians. In his publication Soldiers Indians and Silver: North
America's First Frontier War, Mr. Powell noted that “Hernán
Cortés, the Conqueror, defeated the Aztecs in a two-year campaign”
but that his “stunning success created
an illusion of European superiority over the Indian as a
warrior.” Continuing with this line of thought, Mr. Powell observed
that “this lightning-quick subjugation of such massive and complex
peoples as the Tlaxcalan, Aztec, and Tarascan, proved to be but
prelude to a far longer military struggle against the peculiar and
terrifying prowess of Indian America's more primitive warriors.”
Mixtón
Rebellion (1540-1541)
In the
spring of 1540, the Indian population of western Mexico began a fierce
rebellion against the Spanish rule. The indigenous tribes living along
today's Three-Finger border region between Jalisco and Zacatecas led
the way in fomenting the insurrection. In the hills near Teul and
Nochistlán, the Indians attacked Spanish settlers and soldiers and
destroyed churches.
By April
of 1541, the Cazcanes of southern Zacatecas and northern Jalisco were
waging a full-scale revolt against all symbols of Spanish rule. Pedro
de Alvarado, the conqueror of Guatemala, hastened to Guadalajara in
June 1541 with a force of 400 men. Refusing to await reinforcements,
Alvarado led a direct attack against the Juchipila Indians near
Nochistlán. On June 24, several thousand Indians attacked the
Spaniards with such ferocity that they were forced to retreat with
heavy losses. In this retreat, Alvarado was crushed when he fell under
a horse. He died in Guadalajara from his injuries on July 4, 1541.
It took
the better part of two years to contain the Mixtón Rebellion. Antonio
de Mendoza, who had become the first Viceroy of Nueva España in 1535,
quickly assembled a force of 450 Spaniards and 30,000 Aztec and
Tlaxcalan warriors. In a series of short sieges and assaults, Mendoza
captured the native fortresses one by one. By December, 1541, the
native resistance had been completely crushed. The Mixtón Rebellion
had a profound effect upon the Spanish expansion into central and
northern Mexico. The historian J. Lloyd Mecham wrote that “the
uprising in Nueva Galicia not only checked advance in that direction,
but even caused a temporary contraction of the frontiers.”
The
Discovery of Silver (1546)
In 1546,
an event of great magnitude that would change the dynamics of the
Zacatecas frontier took place. On September 8, a Basque nobleman, Juan
de Tolosa, meeting with a small group of Indians near the site of
the present-day city of Zacatecas, was taken to some nearby mineral
outcroppings. Once it was determined that the mineral samples from
this site were silver ore, a small mining settlement was very quickly
established at Zacatecas, 8,148 feet above sea level.
Suddenly,
the dream of quick wealth brought a multitude of prospectors,
entrepreneurs, and laborers streaming into Zacatecas. Indians from
southern Mexico, eager to earn the higher wages offered by miners,
flooded into the region. In the next two decades, rich mineral-bearing
deposits would also be discovered farther north in San Martín (1556),
Chalchihuites (1556), Avino (1558), Sombrerete (1558), Fresnillo
(1566), Mazapil (1568), and Nieves (1574). However, “the rather
sudden intrusion of the Spaniards,” writes Allen R. Franz, the
author of Huichol
Ethnohistory: The View from Zacatecas, soon precipitated a
reaction from these “hostile and intractable natives determined to
keep the strangers out.”
Native
Tribes of Zacatecas
The
various Chichimeca Indians living in the region of present-day
Zacatecas are described in the following paragraphs.
Zacatecos.
The Zacatecos Indians occupied much of what is now northern Zacatecas
and northeastern Durango. Their lands bordered with those of the
Tepehuanes on the west and the Guachichiles on the east. Mr. Powell
writes that the Zacatecos were “brave and bellicose warriors and
excellent marksmen.” They were greatly feared by the neighboring
tribes, in particular the Cazcanes, whom they attacked constantly.
Although
many of the Chichimeca Indians were nomadic, some of the Zacatecos
Indians had dwellings of a more permanent character, inhabiting areas
near the wooded sierras. The Zacatecos Indians grew roots, herbs,
maize, beans, and some wild fruits. They hunted rabbits, deer, birds,
frogs, snakes, worms, and rats. Eventually, the Zacatecos would
develop a fondness for the meat of the larger animals brought in to
their territory by the Spaniards. During their raids on Spanish
settlements, they frequently stole mules, horses, cattle, and other
livestock, all of which became a part of their diet.
Peter
Masten Dunne, the author of Pioneer
Jesuits in Northern Mexico, writes that the Zacatecos were
“a tall, well-proportioned, muscular people.” They had oval faces
with “long black eyes wide apart, large mouth, thick lips and small
flat noses.” The Zacatecos married young, with most girls being
married by the age of fifteen. Monogamy was their general practice.
Most of the Zacatecas Indians smeared their bodies with black clay.
This paint helped shield them from the sun's rays but also kept vermin
off their skin. In contrast, their fellow tribal group, the
Guachichiles painted themselves with red clays.
Guachichiles.
Of all the Chichimec tribes, the Guachichile Indians occupied the
largest territory, – an estimated 100,000 square kilometers – from
Saltillo, Coahuila in the north to Lake Chapala in eastern Jalisco on
the southern end. Their territory extended through parts of eastern
Zacatecas, western San Luis Potosí, parts of eastern Jalisco,
Aguascalientes and western Guanajuato. Their territory extended
westward close to the city of Zacatecas and eastward into sections of
San Luis Potosí.
The name
Guachichil ‒ given
to them by the Aztecs ‒ meant “head colored red.” They had
been given this label, writes Mr. Dunne, because “they were
distinguished by red feather headdresses, by painting themselves red
(especially the hair), or by wearing head coverings (bonetillas) made
of hides and painted red.” The archaeologist Paul Kirchhoff wrote
that the following traits characterized the Guachichile Indians:
“painting of the body; coloration of the hair; head gear; matrilocal
residence; freedom of the married woman; special forms of cruelty to
enemies.”
In the
development of tribal alliances, the Guachichiles were considered the
most advanced of the Chichimec tribes. They were a major catalyst in
provoking the other tribes to resist the Spanish settlement and
exploitation of Indian lands. “Their strategic position in relation
to Spanish mines and highways,” wrote Mr. Powell, “made them
especially effective in raiding and in escape from Spanish
reprisal.” The Spanish frontiersmen and contemporary writers
referred to the Guachichiles “as being the most ferocious, the most
valiant, and the most elusive” of all their indigenous adversaries.
In addition, the Christian missionaries found their language difficult
to learn because of its “many sharply variant dialects.” As a
result, the conversion of these natives to Christianity did not come
easy.
Cazcanes.
The Cazcanes Indians occupied southern Zacatecas and northern Jalisco.
Occupying territory to the west of the Guamares and Tecuexes and south
of the Zacatecos Indians, they were a partly nomadic people whose
principal religious and population centers were in Teul, Tlaltenango,
Juchipila, and Teocaltiche. After their defeat in the Mixtón
Rebellion, the Cazcanes began serving as auxiliaries to the northward
Spanish advance. For this reason, they would occasionally come under
attack by the Zacatecos Indians.
Tepehuánes.
The Tepehuán Indians occupied the southwestern part of Zacatecas.
According to Buelna (1891), they received their name from the Náhuatl
term tepetl, "mountain," and huan, "at the junction
of.” The Tepehuanes were
located mainly in Durango, on the eastern slope of the Sierra Madre
Occidental, but extended into the reaches of what is now western
Zacatecas. Unlike the Zacatecas and Guachichiles, the Tepehuanes did
not become involved in operations against the Spaniards in the
Chichimec War. The
historian Charlotte M. Gradie has discussed in great deal the
Tepehuanes and their famous revolt that began in 1616 and ravaged much
of Durango for three years.
The
Chichimeca War (1550-1590)
Mr.
Powell writes that rush to establish new settlements and pave new
roads through Zacatecas, “left in its wake a
long stretch of unsettled and unexplored territory...” As these
settlements and the mineral output of the mines grew in numbers,
“the needs to transport to and from it became a vital concern of
miners, merchants, and government.” To function properly, the
Zacatecas silver mines “required well-defined and easily traveled
routes.” These routes brought in badly-needed supplies and equipment
from distant towns and also delivered the silver to smelters and royal
counting houses in the south.
Mr.
Powell wrote that these highways “became the tangible, most
frequently visible evidence of the white man's permanent intrusion”
into their land. As the natives learned about the usefulness of the
goods being transported (silver, food, and clothing), “they quickly
appreciated the vulnerability of this highway movement to any attack
they might launch.”
In time,
the Zacatecos and Guachichile Indians, in whose territory most of the
silver mines could be found, started to resist the intrusion by
assaulting the travelers and merchants using the roads. And thus began
La Guerra de los Chichimecas
(The War of the Chichimecas), which eventually became the longest
and most expensive conflict between Spaniards and the indigenous
peoples of New Spain in the history of the colony.
The
attacks against the silver caravans usually took place in a narrow
pass, in rocky terrain, at the mouth of a ravine, or in a place with
sufficient forestation to conceal their approach. They usually
ambushed their victims at dawn or dusk and struck with great speed.
Mr. Powell wrote that “surprise, nudity, body paint, shouting, and
rapid shooting were all aimed at terrifying the intended victims and
their animals. There is ample evidence that they usually succeeded in
this.” The Spaniards' superiority in arms was not effective when
they were taken by surprise.
In
hand-to-hand combat, the Chichimeca warriors gained a reputation for
courage and ferocity. Even when the Chichimeca warrior was attacked in
his hideout or stronghold, Mr. Powell writes, “He usually put up
vigorous resistance, especially if unable to escape the onslaught. In
such cases, he fought - with arrows, clubs, or even rocks! Even the
women might take up the fight, using the weapons of fallen braves. The
warriors did not readily surrender and were known to fight on with
great strength even after receiving mortal wounds.”
The
intensity of the attacks increased with each year. Then, in 1554, the
worst disaster of all occurred when a train of sixty wagons with an
armed escort was attacked by the Chichimecas in the Ojuelos Pass. In
addition to inflicting great loss of life, the Chichimecas carried off
more than 30,000 pesos worth of clothing, silver, and other valuables.
By the late 1580s, thousands had died and a general depopulation of
the Zacatecas mining camps became a matter of concern for the Spanish
authorities.
The
Turning of the Tide (1585)
If there
was any single date that represented a turning of the tide in the
Chichimec War, it would be October 18, 1585. On this day, Alonso
Manrique de Zuñiga, the Marqués de Villamanrique, became the seventh
viceroy of Mexico. Mr. Powell writes that “to this great viceroy
must go the major share of credit for planning and largely effecting
the end” of the war and “the development of basic policies to
guarantee a sound pacification of the northern frontier.”
Villamanrique evaluated the deteriorating situation, consulted expert
advice, and reversed the practices of the past.
The
Viceroy learned that many Spanish soldiers had begun raiding peaceful
Indians for the purpose of enslavement. Infuriated by this practice,
the Marqués prohibited further enslavement of all captured Indians
and freed or placed under religious care those who had already been
captured. He also appointed Don Antonio de Monroy to conduct
investigations into this conduct and punish the Spaniards involved in
the slave trade.
Villamanrique
also launched a full-scale peace offensive. He opened negotiations
with the principal Chichimeca leaders, and, according to Mr. Powell,
made to them promises of food, clothing, lands, religious
administration, and agricultural implements to attract them to
peaceful settlement. As it turns out, the olive branch proved to be
more persuasive than the sword, and on November 25, 1589, the Viceroy
was able to report to the King that the state of war had ended.
Peace
by Persuasion
The
policy of peace by persuasion was continued under the next Viceroy,
Luis de Velasco. He sent Franciscan and Jesuit missionaries into the
former war zone and spent more money on food and agricultural tools
for the Chichimecas. He also recruited some 400 families of Tlaxcalans
from the south and settled them in eight towns of the war zone.
Velasco's successor, the Conde de Monterrey, completed Velasco's work
by establishing a language school at Zacatecas to teach missionaries
the various Chichimeca dialects. Through this effort, the conversion
of the Chichimeca Indians to Christianity would be streamlined.
Peace
by Purchase
The most
important component of the “peace by purchase” policy involved the
shipment and distribution of food, clothing, and agricultural
implements to strategically located depots. The clothing shipped,
according to Mr. Powell, included coarse woolen cloth, coarse
blankets, woven petticoats, shirts, hats and capes. The agricultural
implements included plows, hoes, axes, hatchets, leather saddles, and
slaughtering knives. “However,” writes Mr. Powell, “the most
fundamental contribution to the pacification process at century's end
was the vast quantity of food, mostly maize and beef.” Another
important element of the pacification was the maintenance of freedom.
Many of the Indians had been granted exemption from forced service and
tribute and had thus retained their independence of action.
Assimilation
and Mestizaje
As the
Chichimeca War ended and the Zacatecos and Guachichile Indians settled
down to work for their former enemies, the nomadic tribes of Zacatecas
disappeared. In the meantime, Catholic missionaries had begun a
vigorous campaign to win the hearts and souls of the native people of
Zacatecas. By 1596, fourteen monasteries dotted the present-day area
of Zacatecas. The peace offensive and missionary efforts were so
successful that within a few years, the Zacatecos and Guachichile
Indians had settled down to peaceful living within the small
settlements that now dotted the Zacatecas landscape. Working in the
fields and mines alongside the Aztec, Tlaxcalan, Otomí and Tarascan
Indians who had also settled in Zacatecas, the Chichimeca Indians were
very rapidly assimilated into the more dominant cultures. Absorbed
into the Spanish and Indian groups that had invaded their lands
half-a-century earlier, the Guachichiles
and Zacatecas Indians disappeared as distinguishable cultural entities.
And thus, Mr. Powell concludes, “the
sixteenth-century land of war thus became fully Mexican in its
mixture.”
The
1921 Census
According
to the 1921 Mexican census, the state of Zacatecas contained 379,329
persons in a republic that boasted a total population of 14,334,780.
In all, 32,422 Zacatecas residents (or 8.55%) claimed to be of
pure indigenous background, while another 326,615 claimed to be of
mixed indigenous and Caucasian background. The 1921 Zacatecas census
classifications are summarized in the following table:
|
The
1921 Mexican Census: Racial Classifications in Zacatecas
|
|
Racial
Classification
|
No.
of Persons
|
%
of Total State Population
|
|
Indígena
Pura
|
32,422
|
8.54%
|
|
Indígena
Mezclada con Blanca
|
326,615
|
86.10%
|
|
Blanca
|
19,930
|
5.25%
|
|
Question
Ignored or Other Classifications
|
362
|
0.10%
|
|
Total
Population
|
379,329
|
100%
|
|
Source:
Departamento de la Estadística Nacional, Annuario de
1930: Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tacubaya, Distrito Federal,
1932), pp. 48-50.
|
The
Huicholes and Tepehuanes who have traditionally occupied portions of
far western Zacatecas have survived to this day, but most of them now
live in the neighboring states of Durango, Chihuahua, Nayarit and
Jalisco. In the 1930 census, only 27 persons in Zacatecas were tallied
as persons over the age of five who spoke an indigenous language. This
number increased to 284 in 1950 and to 1,000 in the 1970 census. With
the exception of the Huichol and Tepehuanes speakers, all indigenous
languages spoken in Zacatecas during the twentieth centuries were
transplanted languages from states south of Zacatecas (i.e., Oaxaca,
Chiapas and Michoacán).
Indigenous
Languages Spoken in Zacatecas (2000)
In the
2000 census, a mere 1,837 persons in Zacatecas spoke indigenous
languages, with the main languages spoken being the Tepehuán (358
persons), Huichol (330 persons), Náhuatl (330), Otomí (119), Mazahua
(101), and Purépecha (80). The majority of these speakers of Indian
languages were transplants from other states.
Most of
the original indigenous peoples of Zacatecas do not exist as
individual cultural entities anymore, but genetically their blood has
been passed forward to present generations of Zacatecanos and Mexican
Americans. The fifty-year struggle of the Zacatecas Indians is a
tribute to their resolve and independence, and the fact that they
could not be defeated through war alone, but had to be bribed into
peace, is a testimony to their tenacity and strength.
Indigenous Languages Spoken in
Zacatecas (2010)
In
the 2010 census, 5,157 indigenous speakers 3 years and older resided
in Zacatecas, but almost one-third of these indigenous speakers did
not specify which language they spoke, as noted in the following
table:
|
The
2010 Census: Indigenous Languages Spoken in Zacatecas
|
|
Indigenous
Language
|
Population
3 Years and Older Who Speak an Indigenous Language
|
Percent
of all Indigenous Speakers
|
|
Lengua
indígena no especificada
|
1,631
|
31.6%
|
|
Huichol
|
1,003
|
19.4%
|
|
Náhuatl
|
503
|
9.8%
|
|
Tepehuano
|
492
|
9.5%
|
|
Tlapaneco
|
381
|
7.4%
|
|
Tepehuano
de Durango
|
328
|
6.4%
|
|
Mazahua
|
151
|
2.9%
|
|
Zapoteco
|
137
|
2.7%
|
|
Mixteco
|
111
|
2.2%
|
|
Purépecha
(Tarasco)
|
100
|
1.9%
|
|
All
Zacatecas Indigenous Speakers
|
5,157
|
100%
|
|
Source:
INEGI. Censo de Población y Vivienda 2010: Tabulados del
Cuestionario Básico: Población de 3 años y más que habla
lengua indígena por entidad federativa y lengua
|
The
Huichol and Tepehuano languages are spoken by persons who mostly live
in Durango and Nayarit, but many of these groups have moved to the
larger urban areas of Zacatecas and Jalisco to obtain gainful
employment.
Copyright
© 2017 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved.
Sources:
Bakewell,
P.J. Silver
Mining and Society in Colonial Mexico: Zacatecas, 1546-1700.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971.
Departamento
de la Estadística Nacional. Annuario de 1930. (Tacubaya, Distrito Federal, 1932).
Dunne,
Peter Masten. Pioneer
Jesuits in Northern Mexico. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1944.
Franz,
Allen R. “Huichol Introduction: The View from Zacatecas,” in Stacy
B. Schaefer and Peter T. Furst (eds.), People of the Peyote: Huichol Indian History, Religion, and Survival.
Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996.
Hedrick,
Basil C. et al. The
North Mexican Frontier: Readings in Archaeology, Ethnohistory, and
Ethnography. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press,
1971.
Instituto
Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI). Superficie
de la República Mexicana por Estados. 2015.
Kirchoff,
Paul. “The Hunter-Gathering People of North Mexico,” in the North Mexican Frontier: Readings
in Archaeology, Ethnohistory, and Ethnography. Carbondale:
Southern Illinois University Press, 1971.
Olague,
Jesus et al. Breve
Historia de Zacatecas. Mexico City, 1996.
Powell,
Philip Wayne. Soldiers,
Indians and Silver: North America's First Frontier War. Tempe,
Arizona: Center for Latin American Studies, Arizona State University,
1973.
Secretaríat
de Economía, ProMéxico Trade and Investment: Zacatecas. Online:
http://mim.promexico.gob.mx/work/models/mim/Documentos/PDF/mim/FE_ZACATECAS_vfi.pdf
Sego, Eugene B. Six
Tlaxcalan Colonies on New Spain’s Northern Frontier: A Comparison of
Success and Failure. Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Dissertation
Services, Indiana University, Ph.D. Thesis: 1990, p. 4.
The
Silver Institute, “Silver Production.” Online:
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Jason Buch covers immigration and border affairs for the San Antonio Express-News. A 2007 graduate of Texas State University, Buch worked for two years at the Laredo Morning Times before coming to San Antonio. Buch first worked on the business desk at the Express-News, covering at various times real estate, the automotive industry, manufacturing, technology and telecom. In 2010 he joined the metro desk and took on his current beat.
Acta de posesión y juramento de la villa de Ayora a Mencía de Mendoza, en el año 1522.Sucedió a su padre a la edad de catorce años como Marquesa del Cenete y heredó la fortuna de la familia de Mendoza.
El 6 de marzo de 1521, Fernando de Magallanes llegó a las Islas Marianas en su expedición para circunnavegar el globo. Magallanes fue recibido por los nativos, los chamorros, quienes le ofrecieron comida y agua. Esperando ser recompensados por sus ofrecimientos, los chamorros, que no tenían el concepto de la propiedad de los españoles, comenzaron a sacar algunas cosas de los barcos españoles, por eso las islas eran conocidas también como "Las Islas de los
Ladrones." A pesar de la visita de Magallanes, Guam no fue reclamada oficialmente por España sino hasta 1565. Guam fue un lugar de descanso para las naves españolas que cruzaban el Océano Pacifico durante los siguientes 103 años. Con cada visita llegaron nuevas influencias
extranjeras. 
Estos presidios eran fortificaciones construidas de piedra o de adobe, o una combinación de ambos, generalmente de forma cuadrada de
aprox. 120 metros. por lado, y con bastiones salientes o torres en al menos dos esquinas
opuestas, donde colocaban cañones para proteger sus flancos. No eran construcciones sofisticadas puesto que no se requerían, ya que se utilizaban solamente para guarecerse de los ataques de los indios bárbaros, quienes utilizaban armas rudimentarias y no ponían en peligro la construcción. En algunas de las ruinas de los presidios que actualmente todavía
existen, se puede distinguir un túnel oculto con salida hacia el abasto de
agua, que utilizaban para el caso de estar asediados por los enemigos. Dentro de los presidios vivían los
soldados, sus familias, sacerdotes, oficiales, y los indios incorporados como guías, y contaban con
casas, almacenes, capilla, etc.
Fue hasta 1772 en que gracias a los esfuerzos de varias
expediciones, y especialmente a lo aportado por Rubí y los planos de
Lafora, se publicó en Madrid el “Reglamento e instrucción para los presidios que se han de formar en la línea de frontera de la Nueva
España, resuelto por el rey nuestro señor en cédula de 10 de septiembre de 1772”. Con esto se moverían los presidios para ubicarlos más o menos en una línea continua, desde las costas del mar de Cortés hasta el golfo de
México, liberando todos los movimientos rebeldes al sur de la línea e impidiendo el paso de ataques apaches desde el
norte; el proyecto contemplaba que los presidios deberían quedar a unas cuarenta leguas uno de
otro.
El reglamento de 1772 dispuso una nueva distribución de los presidios a lo largo de la frontera
norte, formando una línea de defensa contra los indios y extranjeros. Esta línea constaba de trece presidios, más dos en avanzada hacia el norte(los de Santa Fe en Nuevo México, y San Antonio del Bejar en Texas). Los presidios mantenían un correo mensual entre
ellos. Bajo este contexto se formó una casta de hombres muy especiales, que fue la de los soldados
presidiales. Los soldados presidiales, una casta muy especial de hombres:
Soldado Presidial del siglo XVIII
(Sept.
4, 2013) -- Michael Tapia, an
assistant professor of criminology in the UTSA
Department of Criminal Justice, recently embarked
on a mission to document the histories and stories
of gangs of a bygone era. Through a start-up
funded by UTSA, 
A
few years ago, as the Chapter Commander of the local American GI
Forum, I was asked to call a “Ono Lugo” – he was interested in
becoming a member of the chapter. Ono and I did meet and became
friends. I was always looking for talent and Ono was a tremendous
help. At first observation, he appeared to be quiet and very reserved,
but that all changed when he was given the chance to bring out his
personality. Soon I asked him to be a part of the color guard and he
quickly joined and was very helpful in giving the color guard some
tips on how to look more professional. As a young man, he boxed in the
golden gloves, so he was helpful when we had our yearly boxing
fund-raisers for the chapter and the boxing clubs. The week-end after
those fund-raisers we would have a dinner-dance fund raiser for the
chapter. When the music started (most of the time by David Tinoco y
Las Estrellas) women of all ages wanted to dance with Ono Lugo. He was
very graceful and knew the latest dance moves. Sadly, Ono Lugo passed
away on February 10 of this year – born Oct.3, 1937. 
http://www.bluewallnypd.com/jorge-otero-barreto.html
La
escocesa Francis Erskine Inglis, conocida como Madame Calderón de la
Barca, pasó a la posteridad por su libro “La vida en México”,
el cual consta de las cartas a su hermana desde México en el siglo XIX.
Solo
un día fue: “tan abominablemente cruel por los balances, como los
llaman, que dan ganas de tirarse por la borda para descansar de una vez.
Todo se ha roto o se está rompiendo. Hasta los cañones vomitan las
balas que se salen por su propio peso”. * 
Este evento se realiza
en coordinación con la Sociedad Genealógica y de Historia Familiar de
México. En su primera parte, Hinojosa explicó detalladamente los
antecedentes de los escudos y blasones de los ejércitos que luchaban en
las guerras santas. El Heraldo es el rey de armas, y coincide con el
nombre del portador de noticias, por lo que la Heráldica se erige como
el término que identifica a cierto grupo de personas unidas por lazos
de diversos tipos que tienen un escudo como medio de reconocimiento.
El 8 de enero de 1820 nació en la Ciudad de México, un personaje a quien con el tiempo se le llamó con cierto temor y aire de desprecio el “Tigre de Tacubaya”. Apenas dos días después fue llevado a recibir las aguas bautismales y se le impuso 
Lamentablemente al poco tiempo de su
llegada, murió Romero Rubio en octubre de 1895. Márquez padeció las agresiones de la prensa 
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